FORM FIVE HISTORY TOPIC 1: PRE COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
1. Assess why pre-colonial African societies did not develop the slave mode of production
2. The feudal mode of production did not develop in the entire African continent. Account for the variations. (Give six points)
3. Analyse five characteristics of the first non antagonistic mode of production which developed in Africa and elaborate three factors that show how African communal societies transformed to feudalism. (NECTA 2014)
4. Analyse the characteristics of pre-colonial exploitative modes of production in Africa. (Give four characteristics in each mode of production). (NECTA 2016)
5. How did Neolithic revolution affect the pre colonial African societies?
6. Though the characteristics of feudal mode of production were the same their approaches however were different. Identify six differences between the feudal mode of production practiced in Buganda with the one that along the coast of East Africa.
7. Discuss the main factors that facilitated the rise and development of the Nyarubanja system in the West lake region in pre colonial Africa.
8. Explain six outstanding features of the centralised societies that existed in prec olonial Africa. (NECTA 2013)
9. With vivid examples, account for the rise and expansion of large scale social political organisations in pre colonial African societies.
10. Describe six factors for the development of State Organisation in pre-colonial West African Societies. (NECTA 2016)
11. The emergence and consolidation of African societies was to a large extent due to internal of dynamic of the African societies rather than external influences. Discuss
12. Discuss how basic political organizations in Africa were related to the environment where they evolved.
13. Explain six roles of Islamic religion in the formation of Pre-colonial West African states. (NECTA 2015)
14. Discuss the political, social and economic factors for the 19th C religious movements in Western Africa.
15. Account for the outbreak of the political turmoil and its consequences among the Nguni speaking people of South Africa in the 19th Century.
16. By using six points, examine the influence of Mfecane war in the formation of centralised states in Central and East Africa during the 19th century. (NECTA 2017)
17. Examine four usefulness and four weakness of the pre-colonial education (NECTA 2012)
18. Assess the objectives and aspects of pre-colonial education
19. Examine critically the characteristics of pre colonial education and its role enhancing African cultural aspect
20. Pre-colonial African societies were dynamic. Justify this statement by giving six points. (NECTA— Private candidates 2015)
Basic concepts:-
1. Human labour
2. Means of labour
3. Objects of labour
4. Relations of production
5. Mode of production
1. Human labour: – Is a purposeful activity directed at the production of necessary product. Human labour includes personal factors in the production process such as skills, experience, scientific and technological knowledge. Labour is therefore the primary condition for human life because for man to survive he must satisfy his wants.
2. Means of labour: – These are things people use in production that is the tools of production. These tools include machines, hoes and more. Production is aided by the instruments of labour.
3. Objects of labour – These are things that are subjected to man‟s labour or they are things upon which man‟s labour is applied land being the most common object.
4. Relation of production – is the process of production people act on nature and the same time enter into relations with one another. The relations of production are determined by the form of ownership of the means of production and distribution of the products of labour. That is to say is the absence or existence of classes and exploitation in the society.
5. Mode of production – This is the combination of productive forces and the relations of production. The productive forces include human labour, means of labour and objects of labour. The modes of production are communal, slavery and feudal modes.
MODES OF PRODUCTION IN PRE – COLONIAL AFRICA
The modes of production in pre – colonial Africa included:-
(a) Communal mode of production
(b) Slave mode of production
(c) Feudal mode of production
A. COMMUNIAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
This is the oldest system of social relations and preside all the other modes of production. It marked the rise of society from sheer animalism to human society. The main activities were hunting and gathering.
OR
This is the earliest form mode of production in human history where evolution of society started, people were powerless before the environment and depended on whatever nature gave them for food; such as insects, roots and tools involved were; stones, arrows etc
Examples of societies practicing communal mode:-
Maasai of East Africa
Fulani of West Africa
Khoikhoi of South Africa
FEATURES OF COMMUNAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
1. Collective ownership – There was collective ownership of major means of production. E.g. Land was owned by the whole society. It led to absence of exploitation because means of production were not owned by few people.
2. Low level of production forces – It was characterized by low level of production forces because the tools were mode out of stones.
3. Absence of trading activities – absence of surplus lead to absence of trade because whatever produced was consumed.
4. Low level of production – This was due to low level of tools of production, that means non surplus and whatever produced was consumed.
5. No exploitation – There was no any exploitation because of collective ownership.
NB: – This mode changed within time depending of discovery of iron tools which increased production leading to surplus which transformed to exploitative modes to exploitative modes.
B. SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
This is the first exploitative mode of production. Here a person became an absolute Property of another man. Slaves dominated by slave masters. It should be noted that many African societies transformed directly from primitive communalism to feudalism as a result slave mode was not well developed.
It was highly practiced in Egypt, Slaves built pyramids.
FEATURES OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
1. Existence of two antagonistic classes.
There was existence of two antagonistic classes, that is slaves and slave masters. Slaves were producers of their own material requirement‟s and surplus products for their masters.
2. Private ownership. There was private ownership of the major means of production, whereby means of production are slaves and are owned by slave masters.
3. Existence of exploitation.
It was characterized by exploitation of man by man, because Slaves were the ones who were involved in production and whatever they produced was appropriated by the slave masters.
4. Relatively advanced tools.
The level of productive forces was still low but relatively advanced than under communal mode of production. Production relatively advanced leading to surplus.
5. Relatively high level of political institutions.
This is due to the use of better tools of production which increased production which supported increase in population leading to formation of states or Kingdoms.
NB: – The slave mode of production later declined due to conflicts between the slaves and slave masters over exploitation of the slaves by slaves masters. The decline of this mode, paved way for the rise of another mode known as feudal mode of production.
WHY PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES DID NOT DEVELOP (ADVANCE) SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
The Following are the reasons showing clearly that the pre-colonial Africa did not develop slave as mode of production:-
1. Slavery existed in few parts of Africa as an institution and not as a mode of production these areas were;
• In Zanzibar; where by slavery existed after Sultan Seyyid Said shifted his capital from Muscat-Oman to Zanzibar in 1840, so slaves were taken from Central and East Africa to perform various activities or tasks in Zanzibar island like domestic activities such as cooking, mopping, fetching water, keeping gates (watch), taking care of elders and children and others offered labour in cloves and coconut plantations.
• In Egypt; where by slaves were taken from western Sudan and forest areas to perform various activities during Pharaoh‟s regime (Period)(rule), these activities were such as constructing canals, making calendar, building tombs, performing various domestic activities.
• Maghreb societies (Morocco,Tunisia and Algeria); slaves were taken from various parts of Western Africa And Northern East Africa to perform various activities in Maghreb societies, for example they were taken to offer their labour in Agriculture like palm dates and domestic activities.
2. Slavery co-existed together with feudalism in many parts of Africa. In Africa slave mode of production was not noted as the mode of production simply because the only mode of production in those areas was feudalism for example in Zanzibar the mode of production was feudalism however slavery also existed there.
3. In Pre -colonial African societies there was no slave masters or class of slave masters which showed clearly that the mode of production existed in pre -colonial African societies was not slavery and rather it was feudalism.
4. The level of development of productive forces used during the transition from primitive to feudalism showed that the slavery (Slave mode of production) did not exist in Africa for example some societies which were in transition to feudalism decided to use hoe to cultivate on the land which showed as the mode of production existed was feudalism based on land ownership.
TRANSITION FROM SLAVERY TO FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
The Major factors for the decline of slavery and the emergence of feudal mode of production were as follows:-
1. Improvement of productive forces during the slavery; changed the social and technical relation of production and geared to the decline of slave mode of production and the rise of feudalism.
2. Existence of class struggle in slavery. The series of slaves uprising against the masters at the end of the day led to collapse of slave mode of production and hence emergence of feudalism.
3. The Failure of the productive forces to correspond with social and technical relational production (relation of production). According to Karl Marx (1818-1883) pointed out that if productive forces and social and technical relation of production in a certain mode of production are not going hand in hand with the existing mode of production then such mode of production will collapse and pave a way to another mode of production.
4. Slaves lacked interest in labour; they frequently destroyed the equipment of production owned by slave masters hence slavery collapsed.
5. The cruel exploitation of slaves and ruthlessness and oppression done by the save masters to slaves led the slaves to revolt against the slave masters hence slaves became free from being controlled by the slave masters this led to the collapse of slavery(slave mode of production).
6. The Slave owners (slave maters) with vast number of slaves were not interested in including the tools of production; they continued to use the old productive forces which automatically led to the collapse of slave mode of production.
7. The constant military campaigns led to the number of slaves to drop down and the prices to get slaves increased this led slave masters to fail to continue with this mode of production (slavery).
FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
This was the second exploitative mode of production based on private ownership of land. It was common in Africa since 14th to 19th century.
Example of societies practiced feudalism:-
– Haya in Tanganyika
– Zulu in South Africa
FEATURES OF FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
1. Existence of two dominant classes; there were dominant classes that is the feudal lords and peasants. The feudal lords / land lords controlled/owned land and peasants were employed by them.
2. Private ownership.
It was characterized by private ownership as in the major means of production were controlled by the feudal lords. Example: – Land and cattle were property of the feudal lords. If peasants wanted to use the land, they had to pay.
3. Exploitation
It was characterized by exploitation of man by man because major means of production were controlled by a few people who are the feudal / land lords. Peasants were exploited through payment of rent.
4. Advanced tools of production.
The level of productive forces was advanced which led to high level of production; this led to availability of surplus.
PRE – COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
At the time of colonization, most of pre–colonial African societies were in the communal mode of production but in transition to the feudal mode of production. Some societies were in the feudal mode of production. The slave mode of production was not well developed because most of the Africa societies transformed from the communal mode directly to the feudal mode of production.
There were various characteristics of pre – colonial African societies
1. The family was the basic unit of production. This limited the division of labour and it was a hindrance to the development of science and technology, consequently agricultural production was always low in pre – colonial Africa.
2. The level of productive forces was very low because the tools used were made of stones. The use of primitive tools led to low levels of production which in turn contributed to the absence of surplus.
3. Land was the commonest object of labour; its distribution was on cultural values and traditions. In clan organization land was distributed by the clan head on customary laws.
4. There were some class societies in pre–colonial Africa. For example under the slave mode of production; there was a class of slave masters and the slaves and in feudal mode of production was characterized by a class of land lords/ feudal lords, and peasants.
5. The major economic activities were agriculture and pastoralism. Agriculture was mainly carried out by feudal societies and it was common in the interlacustrine region. Pastoralism was mainly practiced by societies that level in the rift valley region for example the Maasai of East Africa.
6. The pre–colonial African societies were pre–capitalist because there are three modes of production. I.e. communal, slavery and Feudal modes of production. The capitalist mode of production was introduced during colonialism.
7. Production in pre–colonial Africa was mainly for consumption and not for the market. Production for the market was introduced during colonialism whereby Africans were producing raw materials for the export market.
NOTE: – It should be noted that the pre–colonial African societies were not at the same level of development.
WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES WERE ABLE TO DEVELOP THE FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION/REASONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
The Pre–colonial African societies were not static or unchanging they went through various transformations that were influenced by the nature of the environment, climate and soil fertility.
Some factors enabled some African societies to be able to transform from other modes of production to the feudal mode of production.
There are various factors that contributed to the rise of feudalism in Africa:
1. Nature of the environment
Those areas in African that had fertile soils and received enough rainfall throughout the year supported agriculture on a large scale thus leading to the increase in production which facilitated the rise of feudalism.
2. Advancement of science and technology
The development of science and technology which was due to the making and using of iron tools led to drastic changes in agricultural production, this played a crucial role in the rise of feudalism in Africa.
3. Increase in population
The increase in population was due to increase in food supplies and standard of living. The increase in population resulted into shortage of land that facilitated the rise of feudalism due to private ownership of land.
4. Existence of strong political institutions
The existence of strong political institutions for example states; played a big role in the rise of feudalism in Africa, these political institutions led to private ownership of land that led to the rise of feudalism.
5. Shortage of land
The shortage of land and its increase in value contributed to the development of productive forces since the people were conditioned to use small plots of land. Such factors threatened the existence of communal mode of production consequently paved a way to the increase of feudalism.
6. Strong and well disciplined army
The Strong and well disciplined army led to the establishment of feudal societies and feudal states because the army was used by their leaders to go and conquer the areas of their neighbouring kingdoms hence increase the land for their societies for example in Buganda, Kabaka used army to conquer Bunyoro-Kitare under Kabalega also in South Africa were Shaka used army with establish Zulu Kingdom by conquering small kingdoms.
7. Growth and control of trade
Trade was one among the reasons which led to emergence of some feudal societies. Societies which engaged in trade acquired iron tools and guns and these were used in agricultural production and expansion and consolidation of feudal societies/states. For Example the Buganda kingdom which engaged in trade got iron tools which helped them to get involved in permanent agricultural production of crops such as Banana that ensured constant supply of food and led to the establishment of permanent settlement.
INFLUENCE OF MFECANE IN THE FORMATION OF STATES DURING THE 19TH CENTURY.
THE MFECANE
Mfecane is a Ngoni word used to refer to the wars and disturbances which accompanied the rise of the Zulu state under Shaka from 1818. The Mfecane can also be defined as the time of trouble in South Africa. It was a great upheaval which affected areas as far as Western part of Tanzania. The Mfecane dominated the first hold of the 19th century in South Africa.
Causes of the Mfecane:-
1. Population pressure
Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended to increase rapidly. As the population increased conflicts between those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
2. Land shortages
The people who occupied Zulu land were farmers, but the existing land was not enough due to population pressure, therefore the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
3. The coming of the Boers
During the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control and moved into the interior of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa intensified the pressure on land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane.
4. The role of Shaka
The outbreak of the Mfecane can also be attributed to the role of Shaka. Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom, Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
5. Control of profitable trade
The need to control trade along the Delgoa Bay is one of the factors responsible for the outbreak of the Mfecane. Trade contacts with the coast were very important because it was associated with acquisition of guns that can be used for conquest and expansion.
Effects of the Mfecane in East and Central Africa
The Mfecane had a tremendous impact in East and Central Africa; some of the effects had a far reaching impact to Africa.
1. Formation of states
The Mfecane led to state formation because the severity of these wars led to formation of strong armies for protection, but these armies were later used for conquest and expansion thus forming states. Examples of these states are the Shangani states in Zimbabwe.
2. Spread of Ngoni speaking people
The most permanent results of the Mfecane were the spread of the Ngoni speaking people. These people were called various names in different parts of Africa. They were called the Ngoni in Tanzania, the matebele in Zimbabwe and Kololo in Zambia.
3. Introduction of Military techniques
The Mfecane led to the introduction and spread of new military techniques such as the cow horn style which involved surrounding the enemy.
4. Introduced of new weapons
The Mfecane led to the introduction of new weapons for example the short stabbing spears called the Assegai; these weapons were introduced by the Ngoni from Africa who came to East and central Africa.
5. Depopulation
The Mfecane led to depopulation because many people lost their lives due to the frequent wars, the most affected region was veld where by many people lost their lives.
6. Famine
The Mfecane led to widespread of famine in East and central Africa. The frequent wars caused insecurity that disrupted agricultural production and finally causing famine/hunger.
NOTE:-
The Mfecane was a great upheaval in the history of Southern Africa because it had far reaching effects in the region.
THE ROLE OF THE MFECANE IN STATE FORMATION:-
The Mfecane refers to the wars and disturbances caused by Shaka and the rise of the Zulu state in South Africa. The Mfecane is also referred to as the time of trouble or turbulence in South Africa.
The origin of the Mfecane was Shaka‟s expansionist policies that led to the conquering states.
The Mfecane played a great role in state formation in Southern Africa.
1. Political transformation
The Mfecane led to political transformation in Southern Africa, the former age group communities were transformed into strong centralized states. The Mfecane also forced people to form strong armies to protect themselves from Shaka; these armies were later used for conquest and expansion hence forming states. Zulu is a good example of a state formed due to the Mfecane.
2. Military advancement
The Mfecane contributed to the introduction of new military weapons such as the short stabbing spears and the cow horn style. These weapons were used for conquest and expansion thus forming states.
3. Emergency of strong leadership
The Mfecane contributed to the rise of strong leadership; this was needed for protection from the Mfecane. Strong leadership had a big role to play in state formation because the leaders united the people to form states.
4. Migrations
The societies through which they passed were forced to form strong states to protect themselves from the Mfecane. The movement of the Ngoni from South Africa was not a peaceful process; it involves wars that necessitated unity among the people.
NOTE: – The Mfecane was a great upheaval in history of Southern Africa; it dominated the first half of the 19th century in Southern Africa.
THE ROLE OF THE LONG DISTANCE TRADE IN THE FORMATION OF STATES IN EAST AFRICA
The long distance trade in East Africa refers to the type of trade that took place between the people of the interior of East Africa and the ones from the coast. The main participants were the Yao, Kamba, Nyamwezi and Baganda from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast. The main items traded were guns, beads and glassware that came from the coast and slaves, ivory, tortoise shells and copper from the interior of East Africa.
The main medium of exchange was batter trade system, which is exchange of goods for goods.
The long distance trade provided a crucial role in the formation of states in East Africa as follows.
1. Accumulation of wealth
Those African chiefs who monopolized trade in pre–colonial African accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build state in East Africa such as Buganda and Bunyoro. Kings such as Mutesa of Buganda, Kabalega of Bunyoro and Nyungu ya Mawe of Ukimbu accumulated a lot of wealth that was used to build strong states.
2. Introduction of guns
The long distance trade led to the introduction of guns into the interior of East Africa. These guns were used to strengthen armies that were used for conquest and expansion.
Most of the states in East Africa were established through conquest and expansion.
3. Active participation in agriculture
The long distance trade encouraged people to participate actively in agriculture to produce goods that can be exchanged during the trade. Active participation in agriculture increased agricultural production which accommodated in high population, this contributed to the formation of states. States such as Buganda, Karagwe and Bunyoro were formed in those areas where agriculture was active.
4. Emergency of strong leaders
The long distance contributed to the emergence of strong leaders such as Mkwawa of the Hehe and Mutesa of Buganda. These leaders played a fundamental role in the emergence of states in East Africa by uniting the people
5. Migrations
The long distance trade encouraged migrations in East Africa. People moved from one place to another to take part in exchange of goods. The migration of people contributed to permanent settlement that had a role to play in state formation.
6. Development of towns
The long distance trade contributed to the development of towns in East Africa, these include Ujiji, Tabora and Bagamoyo. These areas acted as trading centers therefore they attracted many people thus contributed to the state formation.
7. Growth of trade routes
The long distance trade contributed to the development of trade routes in East Africa. These routes opened the interior of East Africa.
THE ROLE OF ISLAM IN FORMATION OF STATES DURING THE 19THCENTURE
A Jihad is a holy war in Islam. Jihads were one of the most significant events that dominated in West Africa during the 19th century; they were mainly led by Othman Dan Fodio. Jihads can be traced back as far as the 10th century when young Fulani immigrates with Islamic knowledge in politics influenced other people to start holy wars.
Jihads under the umbrella of Islam played a fundamental role in state formation in West Africa, states such as Sokoto, Mandika and Tokoro were a result of Jihads.
How, Jihads as an islamic war contributed to state formation in Pre–colonial Africa
1. Unification
The Jihads acted as a unifying factor that brought people together under one umbrella. Islam became the official ruling ideology of the state. The unity provided by Islam was very crucial in state formation. The Islamic law „sheria‟ proved the alternative model of government with which to compare and attack their rulers. Conversion of nonbelievers was an essential duty of all Muslims.
2. Formation of strong armies
The Jihads were characterized with the establishment of strong armies; these armies were later used for conquest and expansion thus forming states. This was responsible for the formation for states such as Sokoto caliphate and Hausa states.
3. Emergency of strong leaders
Jihad contributed to the rise of strong leadership; these leaders were seen as Muslim reformers who managed to create strong leadership under their leaders like futa Djallon in Guinea in 1725 and the Sokoto caliphate.
4. Control of trade routes
The Jihads led to the control of trade routes by the Jihad leaders. These trade routes attracted many people. The wealth accumulated was used to build strong states. Trade also accumulated guns that were used for conquest and expansion thus forming strong states such as Sokoto caliphate.
5. Consolidation of Feudalism
Jihads contributed to the consolidation of Feudalism as a mode of production, land was controlled by the Fulani, and the weapons accumulated were used to build states in West Africa.
PRE–COLONIAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE
Culture refers to the total way of life; it includes education, science and technology, political systems, and traditions. Education refers to the transformation of norms, skills and knowledge from one generation to another. Under normal circumstances, education must grow out of the nature of the environment; therefore the most outstanding feature of pre– colonial education was its relevance to Africa.
Education is one of the pivotal roles in any type of society for the preservation of the uses of the members and maintenance of the social structure.
These are two types of education namely
1. Formal education
2. Informal education
1. Formal education:-
Formal education is that type of education that follows specific programs; there is a defined syllabus and curriculum.
2. Informal education:-
This refers to that type of education whereby young people acquire knowledge and skills by imitating the elders. It is based on one‟s observations. Informal education is characterized with the absence of a syllabus but it involved active participation of the learners in games and plays.
It was progressive as it involved all the stages of the physical emotional and mental development of the child.
It should be noted that there was formal education in pre–colonial Africa to a limited extent. Literacy was concentrated along Nile, North Africa and Ethiopia. This type of literacy was connected with religion, it was mainly found in universities such as Al
– Azhar in Egypt, Fez in Morocco and Timbuktu in Mali.
OBJECTIVES OF PRE-COLONIAL EDUCATION
(i) It produced a well rounded personality who could fit well in society in all aspect of life.
(ii) It enabled the young to abide to the culture of the society such as good moral and social conduct, loyalty and respect to all.
(iii)Pre-colonial education moulded the young people to accept, practice and perpetuate the traditions and culture of the society.
(iv) Pre-colonial education prepare graduates to assume the duties and responsibilities of adult, through at low social level, in accordance with their age and merital status.
(v)Pre-colonial education also brought up children to value the wisdom of their
elders, a vital component pre-colonial oral culture, and much of what they absorbed from their elders was instilled by role-learning.
(iv) Furthermore, pre-coloial education helped children to learn the history of their ancestors and the oral traditions and customs of their community or nation.
Features of pre–colonial education in Africa
1. Informal
Pre–colonial education in Africa was mainly informal; the young acquired knowledge by imitating the elders. In many African societies elders told stories around the fire places in the evening. These stories and all the information that the young received are what are called informal education.
2. Relevant to the society.
It was relevant to the society because it was born out of the environment of the concerned society. It produced well rounded individuals who could fit in their societies; it targeted self community and survival of the society. These was nothing from the alien community because everything stormed from the traditional and customs of the society in question.
3. It was progressive.
Pre–colonial education was progressive because it involved all stages of physical, emotional and mental development of the child. The young people were taught various specialist skills which followed a definite pattern starting from the simple to the complex ones.
4. It put emphases on moral and social conduct. Pre–colonial education aimed at instilling good morals and social conduct to the young people. African societies had some accepted core valves and elders used to condemn strongly any action or behavior that tended to undermine the promotion of the accepted valves.
5. Encouraged specializations.
Pre–colonial African education encouraged specialization in certain fields. It aimed at preparing the young members of the community for specific responsibilities in future.
People trained in activities such as medicine, iron working basketry and pottery.
6. Aimed at procreation
Pre–colonial education aimed at procreation of production. The existing education system in the society shaped and stimulated production within the society. All activities aimed at production as to sustain the society.
7. Lacked uniformity
Pre–colonial African education lacked uniformity. It varied from society to society depending on the economic, social and environmental conditions of a given society. Each society had its own customs and traditions depending on the environment of that given society.
LIMITATIONS OF PRE–COLONIAL AFRICAN EDUCATION
1. The programs of teaching were restricted to a certain period in the life of the individual especially at the time of initiation. The education system did not have specific program for older people.
2. It relied so much on memory and oral traditions; there was no way newly acquired knowledge, skills could be recorded or preserved for the future. Dependence on memorials led to loss of vital information that could be passed on the young people.
3. Pre–colonial education did not have a specific and organic syllabus; each society had its own education which was based on the culture of that society. It should be noted that the environment determined the nature of occupations in pre -colonial Africa; this also shaped the content of education given to that particular society.
4. Pre–colonial Africa education was characterized by parochialism because it was centered on a particular tribe and clan units. It readily responded to
the needs of that particular tribe or region in question therefore it did not address the issues of the whole nation at large.
5. Pre–colonial African education lacked a social philosophical base that could have introduced a sense of uniformity and conformity. There was absence of a common language that could have united all the tribes thus ensuring skills are not confined within one particular tribe.
6. Pre–colonial African education was too mythical, it relied on oral traditions; whereby many of the stories given by the elders cannot be proved scientifically. The elders had a tendency of being bias towards their tribe.
NOTE: – It should be note that despite its limitations. Pre–colonial African education paved a crucial role in development of African societies.
CENTRAL AND DECENTRALIZED SOCIETIES IN PRE–COLONIAL AFRICA
In these societies the power is centralized to a single person and the system of leadership was hereditary in nature.
The examples of centralized societies are Toro, Buganda, Bunyoro of East Africa, Asante, Dahomey, Benin, Oyo, Tokolo and Sokoto of West Africa.
Characteristics of centralized societies:-
1. They extended over larger areas for the reason that territories were annexed and put under the governor who ruled on behalf of the King e.g. Zulu state and Buganda Kingdom.
2. The Kings wielded political power that represented state authority. The centralization of power ensured national unity among the members of the society. As the King had supreme power, then he commanded wealth loyalty from his subjects, respect and prestige.
3. The throne (power) was hereditary in nature that Kings named their successor from among their children or relatives. It was the custom of the King to nominate his successor from amongst his children (family members) when he was living, if he died without appointing him, the elders and other important official have to take the responsibility of appointing the best child to take the throne.
4. The internal stability of the Kingdom and defense from external aggression of neighboring states forced these societies to set up stable military machinery. This was aimed at maintaining the homogeneity of the Kingdom.
5. Despite the hierarchy in administration the Kings and their officials exercised authoritarianism rule (Absolutism) towards the subjects or followers. The council of elders whose role was to adult the king. They assisted him.
6. The King was vested with juridical authority. His courts arbitrated all disputes and misunderstanding within the Kingdom as the King was the highest court of appeal.
7. The King controlled the wealth of the Kingdom. He directed on how land should be used by all members of the society, for example land for agricultural activities and animal husbandry. He looted property and controlled foreign trade, through these means Kingdom accumulated much wealth in his state and he was expected to share generously with his subjects.
8. The expansionist policy of conquest and raids accumulated much wealth for the Kingdom. The war captures were distributed to faithful servants and his hard working soldiers to make the harder and become braver.
CASE STUDY
THE BUGANDA KINGDOM
The Buganda Kingdom was geographically on the shores of Lake Victoria; that means it is found in the interlacutrine region. It grew to its apex by the mid of the 19th C. This was highly centralized monarchy and was one of the daughter states that came into existence after the collapse of the vastly expanded BunyoroKitara Kingdom.
By the second half of the 19th C Buganda became one of the strongest and largest Kingdoms in the interlacustrine region. They conquest and controlled several Kingdoms. Buganda Kingdom was under the leadership of Kabaka Mutesa.
Factors responsible for the rise of the Buganda
1. Centralization of power. The Kabaka governed the political organ and was considered as overall ruler. All political power was concentrated in his hands. He appointed all leaders on merit and dismissed all chiefs. His decision was final and binding. There was a hierarchy in administration, whereby there were a number of chiefs below the Kabaka. They helped to spread Kabaka‟s authority throughout the Kingdom. The Kabaka‟s throne was hereditary but there was no royal family / clan
2. Organized Administrative System. The Kabaka governed the Kingdom with assistance of advisory council (Lukiiko). The council constituted the Prime Minister (Katikiro), the treasure (Muhanika) and the Chief justice (Mugema) as well as country chiefs; all these were Kabaka‟s nominees. The legislative council gave advice to the Kabaka and enacted laws.
3. Stable military machinery.
Kabaka established strong and well disciplined army for the sake of maintaining political stability in the state and defend the kingdom from external aggression. The Kabaka used army to maintain law and order, to pin down the rivals powers and pursued expansionist policy.
4. Bureaucratic system of government.
The Bureaucratic system was employed in order to ensure effective administration of the Kingdom; whereby the whole of Buganda was divided into two countries (Gomborola), the sub–countries into parishes (Miluka) and finally perishes into sub–parishes. At all level the chief were Kabaka‟s appointees.
5. Kabaka’s marriage in each clan.
The Buganda Kingdom had approximately 52 clans, each with its own leadership. These provided the basis for the political unity for the whole administration of the Kingdom. For the sake of political harmony in the Kingdom, Kabaka married almost from every important clan. Hence intermarriages were a political weapon and created the possibility of getting Kabaka from any clan.
6. Agriculture.
Good climate and fertile soil favored crop cultivation. Due to the availability of goods, the population of the Kingdom began in tinkles and became flooded. Also some of them engaged in livestock keeping (pastoralism).
7. Trade
The Buganda Kingdom developed trading contacts with he neighbors that were under governance of Kabaka. Because the Buganda were excellent bark clothes manufactures they participated in commercial activities by exchanging bark clothes for items such as iron tools and with the Bunyoro and cow , cattle, groundnuts and simsim with the iteso , langi and Ankelo.
NB: It is clear stated that the second half of 19th C, Buganda was one of the highly centralized Kingdom in the intercontinental region, Kingdom that had sound organization in the field of politics economic and social set up.
DECENTRALIZED SOCIETIES (STATES)
In decentralized societies, basic unit of political organization was a clan, various clans constituted a tribe. These societies were clan head loyal clan authority. The clan head was chosen from among the elders when they merited the qualities of leadership such as his influence, wisdom and age, wealth.
Decentralized societies, had the following characteristics or attributes:-
1. With equal rights to other members of the clan, the ruler had the responsibility of leading the clan but his position was hereditary. He resigned from power after the election of a new clan head, which took place whenever the former clan head became unpopular and was too old to perform his responsibilities.
2. There were no outstanding armies; the defense of the clan was carried out by all able bodied people (men). This was due to the fact that these societies did not involve in expansionistic policy and wars were scarce.
3. The clan elders works to solve internal conflicts but if they become difficult they were transferred to the general Assembly, voting made the final decision compared to the centralized societies in which the Kings made the ultimate decision and was final court of appeal.
4. Society was responsible to impose the disciplinary measures to the wrong doe‟s society. Society administrated punishment to help criminals to reform in character.
5. Decentralized societies / states had no control of the economy. They communally owned the major means of production.
6. Intermarriage occurred. Those of the same clan were prevented to marry each other instead; the emphasis was placed upon those of different clans, aiming to prevent the inheritance of disease.
CASE STUDY
The Nyamwezi
The Nyamwezi was located in the central part of Tanzania and often the best example of a decentralized society in East Africa.
The Nyamwezi did not develop well organized political institution as those of centralized states of Kingdoms instead they evolved segmented system.
The Nyamwezi were dominant in the long distance trade since they were involved in that trade and this was supported so much with their geographical location.
The prominent leaders of the Nyamwezi society were Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe.
The following are the factors that contributed to their strength.
1. Nyamwezi society was comprised of various Chiefdom that cash was autonomous from each other. It is the historical fact that the formation of chiefdom depended on the number (volume) of the people each could hold. In the 1880‟s eminent political leaders like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe attempted to mobilize the Nyamwezi into strong and centralized political institution rooting into commercial enterprises.
2.Ntemi chiefs. They governed small states in them and administered law and order. The Ntemi chiefs were not trained leaders as they are in to date systems of administration but they were mostly elders, who were elected rulers because of their age, knowledge and experience in the daily life. A council of elders and lesser chiefs counseled and supported the Ntemi chief in their governance.
3. Military machinery. Chiefdom established its own small and well disciplined army in order to ensure political harmony in the chiefdom. That army was entrusted the duty for executing the law, order and security within the chiefdom. Through their trade with the Arabs, the Nyamwezi accumulated fire arm, ammunitions and were armed with local weapons within these circumstances. Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe developed an outstanding army which enable them to expand the Nyamwezi chiefdom.
4. Agriculture. The Ntemi organized and motivated people to involve themselves in crop production in order to avoid famine. They cultivated mainly grains also the Ntemi controlled the major means of production for the benefit of all clans, if any member of the society used the land illegally would interfere by imposing disciplinary measures.
5.Trade. Between the 18th and 19th century, the Nyamwezi supplemented there agricultural activities with the involvement in the long distance trade with coastal Arabs and Swahili traders. The Ntemi chiefs supplied ivory in great Amount as there area was considered as paradise of ivory. They also provide copper which was extracted in Katanga region in the present country known as DRC and iron equipment, including hoes, axes and spears. The Nyamwezi too traders slaves, which were raided from the neighboring Kingdoms that were highly demanded by Seyyid Said.
Nyamwezi commanded and supervised three caravan routes particularly from Tabora to Ujiji in the west, to Katanga in DRC, from Tabora to Karagwe Kingdom in the northwest, to Buganda and Bunyoro, from the Tabora to Lake Tanganyika in the South and from Tabora to the coast.
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The pre-colonial African societies had centralized and decentralized political set up whichwere able to expand and build strong empires likeBuganda, Ethiopia, Nyamwezi, Bunyoro, Asante, Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Ethiopia among others that were even able to resist theintrudersbravery.
At its peak, prior to European colonialism, it is estimated that Africa had up to 10,000 different states and autonomous groups with distinct languages and customs. ... Subsequently, European colonization of Africa developed rapidly from around 10% (1870) to over 90% (1914) in the Scramble for Africa (1881–1914).What were some characteristics of pre colonial African societies?
- Collective Ownership. There was collective ownership of major means of production. ...
- Low level of production forces. ...
- Absence of trading activities. ...
- Low level of production. ...
- No exploitation. ...
- The main economic activities were hunting and gathering.
- Man's life depended on nature. ...
- Absence of surplus.
The Pre-African Societies refers to the african social information before the coming the intruders especially the colonizers. The history of Pre-African Societies is very complex and with contradictions in the narrations given by historical scholars. Various Historians have got the various views about the african society before the coming of the Whites, the schools of thoughts are two i.e the Afro-centric Historians visa vie the Euro-Centric Historians
EURO-CENTRIC VIEW
This is an outlook of European historians on they interpret and view the Pre-Colonial Africa social formation in idealistics way of thinking, it is mostly advocated by conservative bourgeosie concepts. It approaches African history in a racist way, for example the reasons given by the europeans nations for colonizing Africa was the responsibility of Whites to civilize the backward people of Africa. Such answer lacks historical support, so they aim at only justifying their act of colonizing Africa but no spelling out the truth. And one among the prominent scholars in this school of thought is George W. F. Hegel.
Content of Euro-Centric View
According the Euro-Centric View, before the establishment of colonialism in Africa all the African societies were classless, with no political, social and cultural development of any kind. What existed was only darkness, and darkness is not a subject of history that implies that nothing can be written from African history than its darkness.
The life was stagnant and static with no change of any kind, no any level of development, backwardness of all sorts like living naked, eating raw food, stateless, barbaric, chaotic and uncivilized disorder was the order of the day. For example Henry M. Stanley a European explorer reported that he found the Ngoni killing left-right during the Mfecane period, and it was him who saved the society from total collapse by introducing colonialism.
George W. F. Hegel and Henry M. Stanley
The outlook goes further by asserting that colonialism is a blessing in Africa because it brought social transformation and developlment in Africa. They do argue that if colonialism had not taken place in Africa, Africa was at the verge of total collapse. That africans were savages and had nothing like culture and customs in their customs in their societies.
Analysis of the Euro-Centric View
At the level of analysis the Euro-Centric outlook is misleading, the view has no similarity to the truth about the reality of the Pre-Colonial Africa, it hides the reality about the pre-colonial Social formation. The outlook undermines the concept of motive force i.e. change which is the foundation of human struggle which enabled the Pre-Colonial African Societies to obtain political, social and ecolopment.
The explanations offered by Euro-centric scholars are explanations which suit the interest of countries which exploited the rest of the World through trade and investment. It tries to justify the presence and exploitation of African societies. The Euro-centric outlook is not correct and it can not be valid in explaining the Pre-colonial social formation in Africa.
It should be made clear that Africans were not static as the Whitemen are trying to deceive the World so as to justify their barbaric act of colonialism. Ans the fact is that, the level of development of the World towards the 15th century was almost the same.
AFRO-CENTRIC VIEW
It is an outlook which interprets the Pre-colonial African social formation in a Marxist way of thinking, and it is advocated by the Marxist historians mainly of African origin such as Walter Rodney, Franz Fanon and Cheikh Anta Diop. The outlook is traced from the 1960’s when many African countries were achieving political independence. In this period the view was further intergrated by nationalistic leaders and historians to counter attack the Euro-centric historians who were not giving the Africans a place below the Sun.
Walter Rodney, Franz Fanon and Cheikh Anta Diop
The Content of Afro-Centric View
At the level of analysis the Afro-centric outlook is correct since it is objective. It is right and useful outlook. The African societies before colonialism were dynamic, changing and some had obtained big political and economic development.
Evidence Showing that the Pre Colonial African Societies were not Static, Barbaric and Uncivilized
1. Modes of Production.
This is relationship between production and productive forces. The pre-colonial African societies passed through various moded of production which started with primitive communalism where people lived in small communal groups and slept mainly in rock shelters did not keep domestic animals or cultivated the land, they ate wild roots and vegetable. Then developed to advanced communalism where man begun domestication and agriculture practicing, and lastly feudalism where private ownership started. All these are signs that show the African societies were changing from the lower stage to the upper stage.
2. Existence of Education.
The pre-conial African societies had education in their societies both formal and informal but informal was more dominant that largely depended on the environment of a given society. It was largely for survival for the members of each society, most of the education in the pre-colonial societies was informal that varied from one society to another. Also formal education was provided at the University of Timbuktu in Mali something shows that pre-colonial African societies were not static or unchanging, they were moving forward.
3. Occurrence of Neolithic Revolution.
The discovery of iron was was a significant age whereby man discovered iron and its application. This occurred about 1500 BC, iron provided a better cutting edge than copper or bronze, agriculture increased using iron hoes, domesticastion of animals, migration, population growth and trade were all as a result of Neolithic Revolution. The Bantu speaking people were the first of all smelted the iron in the long trenches in the ground then in the land blown clay furnaces using charcoal as fuel. The iron was was then made into arrows head and spears, head axes and small trinket and razors. Thus the pre-colonial African societies were changing.
4. Existence of Strong Political System.
The pre-colonial African societies had centralized and decentralized political set up which were able to expand and build strong empires like Buganda, Ethiopia, Nyamwezi, Bunyoro, Asante, Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Ethiopia among others that were even able to resist the intruders bravery. Such centralized had standind army with outstanding leaders like Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda, Theodore of Ethiopia among others. These were clear vsigns that the African societies were organised and moving forward.
5. Existence of Strong and Technology.
The pre-colonial African societies were developing various science and technology which began with the discovery of fire, iron smelting, mining,bark cloth making etc that was enough to shoe that African societies were changing from one level to another level.
6. Existence of Agriculture.
The africans practised agriculture as their major economic activity, it was mostly for substence such agriculture included permanent agriculture, mixed agriculture, shifting cultivation and pastoralism which acted as the backbone of their livelihood.
7. Existence of Trade.
The African societies conducted trading activities, long distance trade was dominant in the East and Central Africa, Trans-Saharan trade in the Northern and Western Africa. And the medium of exchange was through barter system.
8. Changing of Stone Ages.
The pre-colonial African societies changed from Early Stone Age to Middle Stone Age when hunting and fruit gathering were the common activities up to the Modern or New or Late Stone Age then Neolothic Revolution occurred that made agriculture and pastoralism to be the major economic activities. These are indications that African societies were on the move and not stagnated.
9. Existence of various culture, norms and taboos.
The pre-colonial African societies had their various norms, culture, traditions, taboos which guided them, and anybody who went against them was punished.
Timbuktu University, Mali
THE MODES OF PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
A mode of production is a combination of productive forces and social relations of production. It is the way people relate to the physical world and the way they relate to each other in a specific and necessary ways for a long period of time.
Mode of production is historically distinctive because it is a self-reproducing whole that perpetuates itself for a long time. When however new productive forces or new social relations develop which contradicts the existing mode of production, the social relation begins to collapse to give room for a new social order - a new Mode of Production.
Pre-colonial Africa had two main modes of production; Primitive Communalism and Feudalism. Though some societies had slave holding systems, the Slave Mode of Production did not develop into a fully-fledged mode of production in Africa. By the beginning of the 19th C, most African societies were still in the Communal Mode of Production; a few in a kind of Slave Mode and some in Feudal Mode. Nonetheless, communalism was still dominant in the continent so that even Feudal and Slave holding societies contained communal elements.
PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM (Communal Mode of Production)
Primitive Communalism was the first mode of production in the development of man and society. The mode is called “primitive” because it was the first and with very low level of productive forces and called “communalism” because of the collective ownership of means of production and without exploitation of man by man of any kind. The mode is also referred to as Non-antagonistic system due absence of contradicting classes in it.
It was the first stage on which the development of human society began. Thus it is a system of life from which the evolution of society started, covering the periods of stone, bronze and even iron ages. Being the first mode of production, Primitive Communalism existed for a much longer period than the modes of production that followed like Slave and the Feudal modes.
Primitive communalism is still practiced by some hunting and gathering and pastoral societies in Africa. The slow pace or reluctance to adopt new life standards, the nature of their environment being either thick forested or arid or semi arid and less population in areas they live dictate the primitive mode of life on such societies like; the Mbuti Pygmies and the Twa (Congo equatorial forests), Tindiga and Hadzabe (central Tanzania), Dorobo and Pokot (Kenya), Karamajong (Uganda), Gala (Somaliland) and the Khoikhoi and Sans (southern Africa). While the Mbuti, Twa, and Sans are hunters and gatherers, the rest are nomadic pastoralists.
The Khoi Khoi
Features of Primitive Communalism
1. Collective ownership of the means of production.
All providence objectives like land, animals, labour and tools were communally owned. People had to live together and jointly conduct production activities for survival. Since ownership and labour were communal, there was more or less equal distribution of property and products of labour.
2. Low level of productive forces.
Technology was at the lowest stage that the instruments of labour were rudimentary. During the Stone Age for example, man used tools made of sticks and stones. Due to that, man depended much on the provisions of nature and thus major means of livelihood were hunting and gathering; only a few societies practiced primitive farming. With low productive forces man produce little for his consumption alone.
3. Classlessness.
Absence of class contradictions was due to low population and low development of productive forces. Low population meant that resources were plenty so no struggle by man to control them. People lived, worked and shared equally together. Hence there were no exploiters and exploited which is caused by class differentiations.
4. Low division of labour and specialisation.
This was a result of limited productive skills and activities. One’s gender or age dictated his/her responsibility. Men went hunting and gathering or for war, women and girls for domestic duties that included looking after children. Boys looked after herds while old men stayed at home making tools.
5. Low population.
There were small and scattered communities of kin and kith groups. Each group occupied its own territory from which it searched, for food. Collisions between communities were rear as they were separated from each other by large tracks of land. Low population allowed communal living due to plenty of resources that limited class formation.
6. Stateless societies.
People lived in small groups of kinship. Family heads formed the council of society governance. The absence of dominant classes meant no need for rulers. Also mans needs were limited to his consumption hence limited chaos and wars that would need strict laws and armies. In such a situation man did not need states to organise society.
7. Fully democratic. Communal societies enjoyed full democracy. Decision making involved the entire body of adult member of society regardless of sex. Due to low populations and absence of dominant classes of rulers, the entire society population of elders formed the assembly and equal chances were given to all to make decisions.
In this early stage of development of society, man entirely relied on the provision of nature due low development of productive forces. Nevertheless, this does not tell that society was static. Due to curiosity or the drive to arrest his challenges, man arrived at certain inventions. Among them was the discovery of fire which changed his live as he changed diet, protected, warmed himself and cleared more land; transformation from a nomadic life to permanent settlement that allowed him make more changes to his life, notably the Neolithic Revolution.
Neolithic Revolution in Pre-colonial African societies
Neolithic means the later part of the Stone Age. Neolithic Revolution was the first agricultural revolution when man began domestication of animals and plants in the later part of Stone Age. It was the major change in human life marked by the beginning of farming as man moved from food gathering to food producing.
The revolution was man’s invention in his struggle to master and control his environment by increasing his labour productivity. It describes man’s transition from nomadic hunting and gathering to permanent settlement and agriculture. The domestication of crops and animals assured man of food and protection.
Neolithic Revolution
Factors for the Neolithic Revolution
The factors responsible for the Neolithic Revolution were:
1. Improvement in productive forces.
Advancement of skills and technology increased man’s ability to master and control nature. Notably, the use of iron tools enabled man to open land for farming and settlement. Likewise he could easily protect or distance himself from dangerous animals and enemies.
2. Population increase.
Expansion of families conditioned man to adopt permanent settlement. It made it difficult for man to continue with the nomadic life. Expanded families also increased labour to till the land for man’s essential provisions like food. This certainly conditioned man to domesticate some crops and animals.
3. Changes in climatic conditions.
Ecological changes made man’s life difficult to entirely depend on nature for his vital provisions. In the areas where climate became hotter like in arid areas, man adopted some animals like cattle to provide him food while in wet climate he adopted crop cultivation to attain food.
4. Impact of man’s curiosity.
Man made a number of discoveries from his experimentations and through trial and error. By such means man discovered crops and animals which he could put under his care and that can provide him with needs he desired like food and security.
5. Need for security.
Early man lived in constant danger like attacks by wild animals. The threats of that kind stimulated his innovation and thus discovered how to control the situation. That resulted in domestication of some animals like dogs which protected or alerted him in case of danger.
6. Increase in the division of labour.
The division of labour led to specialization and specification of duties and responsibilities. As men went hunting and gathering, women stayed home looking after children. Staying at home by women made the domestication of crops and animals necessary and easy because they could take care of them.
Socio-Economic Changes brought by the Neolithic Revolution
1. First and foremost was permanent settlement.
The domestication of crops and animals necessitated man to abandon a nomadic life for permanent settlement living style because the domesticated crops and animals required more attention hence occupied man for most of his time. Permanent settlement enabled him provide security to his livestock and crops.
2.Population expansion.
This was mainly a result of increased food production and permanent settlement. Increase in birth rates was vital to offset increase in death rates and that required settled occupation of territory that encouraged population expansion. In permanently settled communities, population expanded faster due to the sharing of child raising responsibilities.
3. Extension of the division of labour.
The division of labour went beyond the lines of sex and age to community level due the Neolithic Revolution. The specification of occupation was now dictated by the society’s environment. For example areas with abundant rainfall specialised in farming of permanent crops, while arid and semi-arid areas were pastoralists.
4. Rise of social classes of exploiters and exploited.
The upper classes of leaders and people with special duties like diviners and healers, who though did not directly engage in production, organised certain aspects of production and utilised the accumulated wealth produced by others (their subjects). They dominated their communities by means of property control and decision making. For example while as land could be collectively owned by the community but it was entrusted to the leaders to distribute it.
5. Development of socio-political organisations.
Population increase and permanent settlement allowed the development of new social, economic and political institutions such as leadership, law, and army needed for man’s welfare. Besides, increase in population reduced land gaps separating societies and thus prompted closely related neighbouring societies to unify. Leaders of the adjoined societies formed governance councils to organise society.
6. Production of surplus.
This was made possible with division of labour (specialisation) and improvement in productive forces that helped man improve his productive skills. This helped man produce enough for consumption and surplus for exchange.
7. Increased energy possibilities.
Domestication of animals like oxen, donkeys, horses and camels made man access more energy possibilities. Such animals facilitated intensive subsistence farming as man could open more land for farming. Also improved transport that enable man to move for long and short distances for trade and other issues like adventure.
8. Conflicts and wars.
The increase in population and improvement of productive forces, contributed to scarcity of resources that led to conflicts and wars. Societies with greater improvement of productive like iron technology plundered and expanded into others to grab them of their resources like land, livestock and food.
9. Spread of diseases.
The domestication of animals and permanent settlement spread diseases easily than during the period of hunting and gathering. Inadequate sanitation and man’s closeness to animals was the cause in the spread of environmental and animal diseases such as Small Pox, Measles and Nagana/Sleeping Sickness that attacked man and his livestock.
SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
Slave Mode of Production was that within which the relations of production that existed was of two classes of Slave Masters and Slaves. The Slave Master owned the means of production that included the slaves as his private property. The slave was owned as instrument of labour so he was disowned of whatsoever rights and freedom. It was the second mode of production in human history and the first notorious form of exploitation, suppression and humiliation.
Slaves were involuntarily held under the control of another person, group, organisation, or state. That is, they were the unfree labour held against their will.
Slave Mode of Production
Features of Slave Mode Production
1. Existence of classes.
Two major antagonistic classes existed with the Slave Mode of Production; the Slave Masters and the Slaves. The Slave Mater owned wealth like land and the salves themselves as his instruments of labour. The slaves owned nothing since even his life and labour belonged to his master.
2. Private ownership of means of production.
Property ownership was enjoyed by the Slave Masters who owned the means of production, the slaves and the products made by the slaves. The slave owned no property but instead was himself owned as instrument of production.
3. Exploitation relations.
Slave Masters exercised notorious exploitation on the Slaves. On top of being held against their will, the Slaves were overworked to produce surplus for the master and in return he gained nothing but only very little means for subsistence like food.
4. Advanced productive forces.
The Slave Mode of Production had more improved science and technology compared to Primitive Communalism. The notable development was iron technology that enabled surplus production for Slave Masters (rulers) who engaged in trade and built states for their protection.
5. Emergence of state.
state emerged as a tool of class domination by the Slave Masters. State apparatuses like the military and laws were put in place for security purposes, to supervise slave labour, maintain discipline among the slaves or subjects and therefore maintain production for the Slave Masters.
6. The system was undemocratic and lacked respect for humanity.
The status of a slave was not that of a human being since he was owned as property an instrument of labour. In that situation, the slaves were denied all sorts of individual, socio-economic and political rights.
7. Class struggles.
The antagonistic relations of the Slaves and the Slave Masters developed frequent conflicts between the two classes. The conflicts were struggles of slaves against exploitation and denial of freedom by the slave masters. Slaves could destroy their masters’ properties like farms and others could run away (escape).
8. Development of Trade.
Societies under the Slave Mode of Production developed trading contacts due to surplus production. The possession of extra labour provided by Slaves and advancement in productive forces enabled the Slave Masters produce in surplus. The surplus products were then exposed for exchange for what the Master lacked.
Origin of the Slave Mode of Production
The basis of Slave Mode of Production was the development of technology (productive forces) and class differentiations.
1. Advancement in technology.
The development of productive forces, in particular, the use of iron was the major factor for the development of classes or societal differentiations on which slavery stand. It improved labour productivity to enable man open more land for farming and other activities like mining and trade. Societies with this technology became more powerful, and their increased desire for wealth led them to control others for extra labour hence slavery.
2. Development of division of labour.
This also was responsible for social differentiation within the communal system. Development of personal skills, talent and experiences led to specialisation in different fields such as medicine, tool making, trade and farming. Such divisions led to classes and inequalities in distribution of material wealth. It was from such groups that rulers emerged to dominate and enslave others for power and wealth.
3. Development of trade.
Trade called for production expansion to avail the surplus needed for exchange. To produce the surplus extra labour was needed. To avail extra labour those with wealth and power forced the weak and poor into slavery to work for them. More powerful societies with improved productive forces attacked their weak neighbours and enslaved them.
4. The role of state.
The state and its military apparatuses emerged as a tool of class domination by the Slave Masters but also were crucial in the development and sustenance of the slave Mode of Production. State armies raided weak neighbouring communities for slaves supervise slaves labour and maintain discipline among the slaves.
5. Population expansion.
This was mainly due to permanent settlement and food production. Population expansion led to shortage of means of production like land. In the struggle to control the scarce resources there emerged antagonistic classes of haves (the rich) and have-nots (poor). The rich subjugated the poor into slavery to produce them the surplus.
Slavery in Africa
The Slave Mode of Production did not develop in any African society in full sense of a mode of production though there were a few slave holding societies. That means that slavery did exist but a Slave Mode of Production as a complete institution never existed in Africa.
A few slave holding societies were found in North Africa, West African, South Africa and along the East African coast. Slave labour was employed in building cities, worked in mining and agriculture societies that practiced slavery. They as well served as domestic servants, soldiers and guards. Slave holding societies in Africa included Egypt, Zanzibar, West African societies and South African by the Boers.
Slavery in Ancient Egypt
Egypt is among the oldest states and civilisations in the world. Agriculture was the foundation of ancient Egyptian economy and vital to the lives of its people. Archaeological findings show evidence of agricultural use dating back to 8000 BCE in Egypt and by 5000 BC., Egyptians lived in farming villages. Each village had its own chieftain that enabled Egyptians transform an expanse of semi-arid land into rich fields by use of the Nile river waters. This proves that Egypt transformed from hunting and gathering earlier than any other place in the world.
The chieftains organised production by constructing irrigation canals and dams to bolster agriculture and control famine that affected them. As a result, some people specialised in leadership to organise society and mobilise labour while others did manual work.
During the dynastic periods, Egypt made tremendous development in science and technology. For example, the astronomical discovery of a calendar improved farming as Egyptian could track the floods of the Nile and plan their planting season well.
In the later periods of Egyptian history, slavery became a widespread source of labour. Slaves were usually captives from foreign wars. The Egyptians however, were not locked into their social classes. Lower and middle-class Egyptians could gain higher status through marriage or success in their jobs. Even some slaves could hope to earn their freedom as a reward for their loyal service. Once a person had skills like reading and writing, many careers were open in the army, royal treasury, priesthood, and the king’s court.
Slavery developed in Egypt due the following reasons;
1. The construction of pyramids and temples.
The construction tasks of such structures were so tough and vigorous hence extra labour force was demanded.
2. Impact of floods caused by River Nile.
The floods seasonally attacked Egyptian communities along the Nile River. So to safeguard themselves Egyptians needed extra labour to raise strong flood walls and dams to check on the flood.
3. Facilitating Irrigation Schemes.
Being in a desert, Egyptians depended much on irrigation for their farming. Irrigation being a continuous activity which needed readily available labour.
4. Construction of towns and cities.
Slave labour was deployed in the construction of towns like Memphis and Alexandria. Great walls were constructed to protect towns from the floods.
5. Slaves also served as porters, domestic servants of the rich and in royal courts. Slaves were availed at the service of the upper classes for such purposes as well
6. The need for surplus.
Surplus was needed for exchange with other societies Arabia and Mesopotamia. Slaves were therefore acquired to produce surplus for trade.
Western Sudan
The Western Sudan is a historic region that is considered by historians as a land of great empires. The most prominent of these states were Ghana (7th to 11th C), Mali (13th to 15th C) and Songhai
(1464 to 1591), but smaller large scale polities have also been important, the empire of Great Foula (late 6th to early 18th C), the Bamana Empire (late 17th to early 19th C), and the 19th C empires of Tukolor of Al Hadj Umar Tal and Mandika of Samore Toure.
The development in productive forces led to emergence of three socio-economic classes; the upper ruling classes of the kings, military aristocracy, merchants and artisans. The second class of peasantry which comprised of cultivators and livestock keepers and at the base were the slaves who were either for domestic production or sale to foreign merchants.
Economically, agriculture, fishing, and livestock keeping were all important to the economies of the Sudanic empires. These activities produced a variety of products that stimulated trade. Merchants established a network of commercial routes, and used relatives and slaves to help conduct their businesses.
Trade, particularly, the Trans-Saharan Long Distance Trade was very crucial to these states. It strengthened the power of the rulers by bringing them wealth and connections with foreign merchants. As the empires grew, the trade routes became better established.
Religion was as well a core factor for consolidation of these states. Islam was the dominant faith in the region. It was introduced to the region by merchants from the north, mostly Arabs and Berbers. The rulers were the first to convert to Islam, followed by merchants and most common people. Many were drawn to Islam because the faith represented a higher, more prosperous civilization, and was seen as a powerful religion. Besides uniting people under their leaders, Islam promoted trade and education.
Slavery developed in the region due to;
1. Slaves were obtained to work as domestic servants especially in farms by rich landlords who needed surplus production.
2. Slaves were also used as porters by rich traders to carry goods to and from the making centres in the long distance trading systems like the Trans-Saharan trade.
3. Slaves served in Kings’/chiefs’ courts and palaces for example as carriers of their masters at the time they needed to move around their kingdoms/chiefdoms/ territories.
4. The development of trade also intensified slavery due to high need of trade items. But also, slaves themselves were a crucial trade item.
The Forest and Coastal Zones of West Africa
The region covers all of Liberia and Sierra Leone, most of Guinea, the southern halves of Ivory Coast and Nigeria, and part of Ghana, Togo and Guinea-Bissau. State development in the region took place between 1000 and 1500 AD when a number of small tribal villages ruled over by chiefs in the region began to consolidate into larger political units and eventually formed powerful centralised states that included Benin, Oyo, Dahomey and Asante. Also was the Manikongo kingdom in the Congo.
The reasons for the development of centralised states in this region are diverse;
Partly, was due to the influx of people from the Sudan, driven south by the increasingly harsh climatic conditions. These brought with them new forms of government, including hereditary monarchy into the region.
But important also as the development of class differentiations. Similar to other regions like Western Sudan the development of productive forces and division of labour resulted into classes that were mainly; the ruling class of the king, nobles, military aristocracy, rich merchants and artisans. This class controlled wealth and trade in the states. The second class was of peasantry, agriculturalists and the bottom class was of the slaves who produced surplus for the upper classes. They were also essential commodity for trade especially with European maritime traders.
The development of technology (iron and industry) was also paramount in the development of states in this region but along other factors that included trade with the European maritime traders through which they acquired wealth and firearms; agriculture and population expansion due favourable climate and fertile soils and; rise of charismatic rulers among others.
East African coast - Zanzibar
The East African coast adopted slavery during the period of Umwinyi before the advent of the Arabs. With the Umwinyi system society was stratified as follows; at the top was the Mwinyi Mkuu who was the overhead controller of the land, next to him were Sheha (in Zanzibar) or Diwani (in Pemba), the landlords and merchants. In the middle were peasants and at the bottom were the serfs and slaves.
Slavery however, increased with the arrival of merchants from the Middle East as more African rulers and merchants needed more surpluses for exchange with foreign traders. The slaves were also important item of the trade. Slavery in Zanzibar increased with the settlement of the Arabs and the eventual shift of Sultan Sayyid Said’s capital from Muscat to Zanzibar due to;
1. Establishment of plantation farming. Plantations were established for the production of the highly demanded coconuts and cloves. To meet the increasing labour demands, slaves were obtained in the interior of East and Central Africa to work in the plantations.
2. Increase in the Asiatic population. As more Arabs and Indians flocked to Zanzibar to participate in the lucrative trade in slaves, gold, cloves and coconuts, more slaves were imported to serve as porters and domestic servants and they were important item of trade.
3. Slaves were exported to the Middle East where they used as cheap labour as domestic servants, porters, herdsmen and guards.
4. More slaves were sold to European merchants who shipped them to the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and Comoros while others to the New World to work in plantations and mines.
East African Interior
In the interior of east Africa slavery developed in the Interlacustrine Region that included the kingdoms of Bunyoro Kitara, Buganda, Ankole. Toro, Karagwe, Buha, Buhaya, Rwanda and Burundi. Like in other regions of the continent, societies in the region developed classes from around 1000 AD. The major classes were; the ruling class that comprised the kings, chiefs, knights and merchants, the middle class was of peasants and tenants and lower class was of slaves commonly referred to as “Abairu.” Slavery was as well practiced among other societies like Nyamwezi and the Chagga. Like in the other regions of Africa slavery existed in the womb of feudalism and thus societies that developed the Feudal Mode of Production were in some cases slave holding. The Ntemiship (among the Sukuma, Nyamwezi and Gogo), Nyarubanja (Karagwe and Buhaya), Busulo (Buganda) and Obugabire (Rwanda, Burundi and Buha) systems practiced slavery. Slaves were held as labourers, porters, herdsmen, domestic servants and guards.
South Africa
Slavery in South Africa started with the arrival of the Boers at the cape since the 17th C.
1. The Dutch farmers (Boers) enslaved Africans (the Khoikhoi and the Hotentoes) in their farms. Africans were alienated from their lands and then turned to slaves by the Boers.
2. Slaves were sold to European maritime traders who shipped them to the Indian Ocean islands of Reunion, Mauritius and Comoros and others to the New World of Americas and Caribbean where they worked in plantations and mines.
3. The discovery of minerals; diamonds (1867) and gold (1886). The British and the Boers enslaved the natives of South Africa and the immigrants to South Africa in the mines.
Slave Mode of Production emerged due to the further development of productive forces and social division of labour and later the development of exchange (trade). Thus, as productive forces developed, man begun to obtain more means of subsistence leading creation of surplus. All of which contributed to the transition from primitive communism to slavery.
Why African societies did not develop a Slave Mode of Production?
The reasons explained underneath implies that slavery existed but did not develop into a formidable Slave Mode of Production.
1. Slavery existed in the womb of feudalism.
Slavery existed within the Feudal Mode of Production and prominent feudal societies like Ghana and Karagwe were slave holding. With that arrangement, slavery was absorbed by serfdom in feudal systems like Nyarubanja and Obugabire in which slaves were adopted as labourers in farms and homes of rich landlords and rulers and could be given part of the landlord’s land to cultivate on their own.
2. Slavery was not permanent.
Slaves were not locked into slavery forever. They could earn freedom as reward for their loyal service and could gain higher status by marriage or success in their jobs. Those who showed talents or skills for example could be integrated into armies. They could also marry or be married in their master’s families hence integrated into kinship.
3. Low levels of productive forces.
This slowed down division of labour and specialisation that would consequently give birth to classes. It meant the dominance of subsistence economy and a very gradual process in production of surplus that slowed down the evolution of class formation from which dominant classes on which a Slave Mode Production would develop.
4. The dominance of communal and kinship living in Africa.
This way of life was common in all African societies. Means of production mainly land were collectively owned though entrusted to the rulers who distributed them to all their people. Labour with its fruits like food and security were jointly shared. This discouraged development of antagonistic classes.
5. The mechanism of obtaining slaves and purpose for slavery differed from one society to another. In some societies war captives were condemned to slavery as punishment. In other societies, law breakers or indebted were forcefully or voluntarily enslaved as a means to settle their cases. In some instances the helpless poor volunteered to be slaves in exchange for means of survival. This explains that slavery was a means of punishment or survival.
6. Low population in Africa.
The population of African societies was low and scattered over a large area so it was very difficult to develop strong class formation. The low population meant that the essential means of sustenance like land and food were plenty. Slavery existed were resources were scarce as the struggle to control the available resources created classes. The great diversity of environmental and material conditions in Africa.
7. This failed the development of connective internal revolutions that would have led to a Slave Mode of Production. While some societies lived in woodlands and practiced hunting and gathering with primitive shifting cultivation, others were in arid or semi arid areas and lived a nomadic life of pastoralism and others in conducive climate practicing subsistence agriculture.
8. Slavery was adopted as a culture of some societies.
In societies like the Western Sudan kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai and in Buganda, Buhaya and Rwanda, it was prestigious and a sign of power to own slaves. In some Muslim societies of like in Eastern Africa, it was a fashion to enslave non- Muslims. Slaves were owned by rulers and the rich who worked them as domestic servants, farm labourers and porters.
FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (FEUDALISM)
The term feudalism is derived from the Latin word Feudum — meaning a “piece of land.” In that sense, the Feudal Mode of Production based on land ownership and land as the major mean of production. In this system land is owned and controlled by few individuals, the landlords (Feudal lords). Since the landlord cannot put his entire land into use, he apportions part of it to the landless people, the serfs/tenants/vassals to work on it in return for paying him rent.
Feudalism is the second exploitative mode of production after Slave Mode of Production. It is based on exploitation of man by man basing on land ownership. In the system, land is owned by a few, the landlords who enter into relations with the landless tenants by renting them land on condition of paying them rent/taxes/tributes. The Feudal Mode of Production developed within state organisations.
Feudal Mode of Production
Features of Feudalism in Africa
1. Land is the basic means of production.
Land being the principle factor of production, agriculture is the major economic activity of feudalism. Feudal societies like Buganda and Karagwe practiced permanent crop cultivation or mixed farming like Oyo and Rwanda.
2. Private ownership of means of production.
The landlords owned the land and other means of production like livestock. They also partly owned the serfs who worked and depended on their landlords’ lands.
3. Existence of classes.
Feudalism was characterised by two major antagonistic classes of the landlords and the tenants/serfs. The landlord controls the land and other means of production such as cattle. The serf lives and work on the landlord’s land in return for rent.
4. Exploitation.
The landlords exploit the serfs by rent or tribute payment for using their land. Majorly only two forms of rent were applied in pre-colonial Africa; the labour rent also termed as land rent that required tenants to work on plots allocated to them to get products for livelihood while sometimes offer free labour on the landlord’s land and; rent in kind that required tenants to share their produce like crops and cattle with the landlord. Money rent was not common in pre-colonial Africa.
5. Advanced productive forces.
Within feudalism, technology was more developed than in the Communal and Slave modes of production. It was featured by the wide use of iron tools that established agriculture and other economic activities like trade due to surplus production.
6. Advanced state formation.
State development had reached high stage in feudal societies. With authority to control means of production, land in particular, landlords became rulers. They formed private armies which helped them maintain their positions, keep law and order, collect rent and tributes from the tenants and offer security to them and their subjects.
7. In feudalism in Africa, tenants as opposed to slaves owned some means of production like plots of land, livestock and instruments of production. After fulfilling his duty to his landlord’s land, the tenant had time to work for himself. This made him interested in improving the implements of labour and labour skills to raise his productivity.
8. Advancement of specialisation.
Specialisation and division of labour was more developed in feudalism than in communalism. Men specialised in commodity production and military while women and children engaged themselves in tilling the land and other domestic duties.
Development of Feudal Relations in Africa
Societies like Egypt, Ethiopia, the interlacustrine states of Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankole, Toro and Buhaya and the Western Sudan states like Mali and Songhai had developed strong feudal systems long before contact with Europe from the 15th C. However a few others like the Khoisan of the Kalahari, Tindiga and Hadzabe of Tanzania, Dorobo of Kenya, Tuso of Uganda, and Mbuti and Twa of the Congo forest were until the 19th C still in primitive the communal mode.
The Khoisan
Transition from Communalism to Feudalism
The transformation of African societies form Primitive Communalism is enough to invalidate the unjustified nature of the Euro-centric view that African societies were static. It is rather an attestation that African societies were undergoing progressive transformation from time to time. The transition from Communalism to Feudalism was facilitated by the; the environmental factors and man’s activities (curiosity) in his struggle to control nature.
1. Climate.
Societies within favourable climate conditions of reliable rainfall developed agriculture with cultivation of permanent crops such as bananas in Buganda and Buhaya and yams in the West African forest states like Oyo and Benin that needed continuous attention. This called upon landlords to seek for extra labour (Serfs). It also led to permanent settlement that led to population expansion that resulted to the struggles to control land.
2. Population expansion.
This resulted to land shortage in areas with economic importance like agriculture. The struggle to control land created classes of landlords and landless poor from which the classes of rulers and subjects developed and therefore the formation of political organisations (states). More so, population growth brought with it improvements in productive forces that forced for adoption of new skills that threatened Primitive Communal.
3. Improvement of productive forces.
This mainly due to the discovery of Iron technology that was a great revolution in man’s life that suffocated Communalism. It enabled man improve his labour productivity to control nature hence went beyond food gathering and hunting. It enabled him open more land for agriculture and produce surplus hence required more labour. Also he became able to subdue others who had not advanced and made them work for him.
4. Availability of natural resources.
Feudalism developed in areas with natural resources, particularly iron but also mineral resources like gold, silver and copper. Societies with such resources were empowered to establish economic activities, notably agriculture, mining and trade that worked with extra labour. The presence of such resources led to classification of people and societies and encouraged production and so the rich had to enter into relations with the poor or subdued them (the poor) to produce surplus for them.
5. Development of Trade.
The improvement in productive forces facilitated trade as man could produce in surplus. Trade increased the value of land as communities had to settle permanently to produce surplus. For example states like Mali and Songhai, were required to produce for the Trans-Saharan trade. Land owners had to enter into relations with the landless by giving them part of their land to produce them surplus for trade.
6. Unequal distribution of products of labour and property.
The start of unequal distribution of property and fruits of labour gave birth to classes within the Communal system. The increasing inequalities eroded the non-exploitative communal nature of African societies. Societies endowed with resources like good climate and iron transformed much quickly to Feudalism. These invaded weaker societies and the conquered peoples were made serfs and labourers.
7. The development of division of labour and specialisation.
When African societies became complex, they developed division of work to improve labour efficiency. Division of labour led to specialisation and classes such as rulers, diviners, artisans, solders and producers. The upper classes could not directly engage in production, they controlled the means of production and subjugated the lower classes to be their labourers to produce for them surplus.
8. Nature of the soils.
Areas with fertile soils also led to agriculture expansion and permanent settlement to ensure constant production for both subsistence use and surplus for future use and exchange (trade). Besides leading to population increase, it raised the desire to secure more land to expand production. The struggle for more productive land resulted to classes.
9. Need for security.
In the times of troubles such as wars and hunger, weaker or impoverished people could submit themselves to their invaders or stronger neighbours for protection. In return for protection, they offered labour or tributes to their new masters in forms of sharing fruits of their labour like farm products or precious materials like salt and iron materials.
Feudal Mode of Production among African societies
The Feudal Mode of Production in Africa existed in a variety of forms depending on the place where they evolved. Nevertheless, though in different forms, the systems shared significant features. The importance of land as the principle means of production as well as the existence of antagonistic classes of landlords and tenants was constant. Though societies like the Hutu, Tutsi and Ankole had livestock, as means of production, land remained the major means of production.
Egyptian farmers turned from free workers to Pharaoh’s serfs, and had to pay 20 percent of their income as a tax to Pharaoh.
Feudalism in the Great Lakes Region
In Buhaya or Karagwe the feudal system was referred to as Nyarubanja. In this system, the class of people who owned private estates (Nyarubanja) was called the Batwazi. These were mostly from the royal family, the Balangira. The landless were the Batwara subjects) and Bairu (slaves). The Batwara had to give part of his products or offer free ibour services to the Batwazi for using their land. In that way they produced surplus or them. The system entirely evolved on agriculture and specifically on cultivation of bananas. Productive forces tremendously improved after the discovery of iron dating back before 1000 AD as evidenced in the archaeological discoveries at Engaruka. The development of trade increased the need for surplus production hence increase exploitation of the Batwara and Bairu.
In Buganda, the system was known as Busulo (Nvujo). Land belonged to the Kabaka king) who also held the title Sabataka meaning the chief landlord (from the term Etaka meaning land). The Kabaka appointed chiefs who headed provinces of the Kingdom. The chiefs were offered private
land and controlled land in their areas on behalf of the Kabaka. Also was a class of Bataka (landlords) that was allowed to own land privately. At the bottom were the poor, the Bakopi (subjects). The Bakopi had to pay rent by sharing the products of the land with landlord or offer his labour services. All the Bakopi offered part of their produce that was called Busulo and/or labour services to the Kabaka that was called Akasanvu to the immediate chief who shared it with the Kabaka. The main activity was agriculture with bananas as main crop. Also trade flourished.
In Rwanda, Urundi, Buha and Ankole, the feudal system was known as Obugabire. The system in these societies was found on cattle ownership alongside land ownership. For instance the Tutsi could transfer some of his cattle to a Hutu. Accordingly, the donor became the master (Sebuja) of the recipients (Bagabire) — meaning the given/offered. The Omugabire and his family were now obliged to perform duties for their master like cultivating crops. In Ankole the landowners were the Bahima and the Bairu were the subjects.
Buganda
The Nyamwezi and Sukuma Societies
Among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma the leader entitled Mtemi controlled the land and the producers themselves. The Mtemi mobilized his people to new land wherever it was available to till (kutema) it. He distributed the land among his subjects to avoid conflicts. A successful Mtemi was the one with many people under him, as more people meant more labour hence more production, wealth and power.
The Mtemi opened the planting season and enforced proper use of land forests and other resources. He was also the one in charge of the state’s grain reserves. Mtemi system had emerged by 1300 AD in the Nyamwezi and Sukuma societies. The same system was adopted by the Gogo in present central Tanganyika and in south central Tanganyika among the Hehe, Sangu and Bena where the leader was referred to as Mtwa.
The Feudal System at the East African Coastal Region
At the East African coast, feudal relations developed before the domination of the Arabs in the l9thC. The great landowner and controller was the Mwinyi Mkuu. Next to the Mwinyi Mkuu in hierarchy of governance were the Sheha (in Zanzibar) or Diwani (in Pemba). These mostly known as Sheha wa Mji or Mjumbe headed the village (ward). Under them were other landlords, the Wamwinyi who received land from the Mwinyi Mkuu. Besides controlling the land, the Wamwinyi controlled the serfs and monopolised political and economic powers. The tenants lived on the land of the landlords (Wamwinyi) and in return paid labour services and tributes. The Mwinyi Mkuu appointed tax collectors known as Shakau to collect taxes for him. Taxes were mainly paid in forms of labour and food. Also in the hierarchy were the religious leaders, the Wazale (Wavyale) who also received surplus products from the peasants.
When the Arabs arrived, there was no quick change of the system. In the beginning, the Arabs ruled over the local peoples indirectly through Mwinyi Mkuu and his system. Nevertheless, when the capitalist demands of raw materials and markets intensified, the local ruling system was phased-out. By 1840, the Arab aristocracy took direct control over the islands. They seized
land and introduced plantation economy for cloves and coconut production. Under the Arab rule, religion and race determined classes and status of individuals. Society was divided into Arabs, Shirazi, Swahili and Africans, in that downward order. To march the world demand for cloves, the Arab aristocrats largely relied on slave labour in the plantations. The Arabs, Shirazi, Swahili and African Muslims were referred to as Waungwana, the rest were called Washenzi.
Zanzibar
Feudalism in the States of Western Sudan
States of Western Sudan such as the ancient empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai were highly developed. Indeed in this region Africans had reached political, administrative, military and economic greatness in the period before the coming of the Europeans. Africans in this region showed greater capability in development than in many other regions of the continent. State formation in this region was not only more advanced, but as well began earlier than the rest of Africa; for instance the origin of ancient empire of Ghana, goes back to the 5th C AD and Mali had its glorious days in the 13th C. Long distance trade across the Sahara stimulated the famous cities of the region such as Walata, Timbuktu, Gao and Jenne and spread enlightenment through Arabic literature and Islam. The trade also strengthened state power of the images which transformed themselves into permanent aristocracy.
Feudal relations in the region were reasonably strong though not as such strong like in other parts of Africa like in Egypt. Feudalism in Western Sudan was much associated with trade and mining activities and was much involved with the Islamic religion since a big population was Muslim and concentrated on trade through Trans-Saharan trade.
Feudalism in Egypt
In Egypt, a small aristocratic and landed class monopolised most of the land leaving a large class of the people landless. The peasants with little or no land were known as the Fellahin. The Fellahin was exploited to produce revenue and surpluses to the landlords. Peasants were turned into mere agricultural labourers and were tied to the land as tenants and vassals of the landlords. Egypt had developed an efficient irrigation system and had advanced agriculture. Indeed it was the first country where the technology of food production spread from. The development of agriculture and pastoralism capable of supporting a large population depended on the ability to master the annual flood water of the Nile. This need to control the water of the Nile forced the different Kinship communities to come together in order to construct dams and canals for irrigation. At first they adopted the basin irrigation system and later improved on it with a new irrigation system referred to as. Shadoof (irrigation system) before invention of the canal system. Archeological evidence shows that in Egypt the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture was made between 5,000 and 4,000 BC.
Egyptian rulers were also able to establish efficient labour relations through which they were able to build attractive canals, dams, and bridges that stimulated trade and commerce with the outside world. Egypt at that time was able to teach Europe in many things including city life where Cairo for centuries was the most cultured city in the world.
Egypt was a more advanced during the era of the Fatimid dynasty (969 — 1170 AD). Science and technology flourished and industrialisation reached a high level. Windmills and water wheels were introduced from Persia in the 10th century. New industries were introduced for papermaking, sugar refining, porcelain and the distillation of gasoline. And the older industries of textiles, leather and metal were improved up on.
Egypt
Feudalism in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia feudal relations were maintained through tenants. Tenants became labourers in farms and in the construction of palaces and public work. They rented houses and were subjected to payment of rent to their landlords. In the feudal Ethiopia the church (Orthodox Church) and the state were in a close alliance just like it was in Europe with the Catholic Church and states. Feudalism in Ethiopia included land that was communally owned by the villages or ethnic communities or the crown. However large territories were conferred by the conquering Amharic dynasty onto members of loyal family, soldiers and priests (Abanus).
Feudalism in Zululand
In Zululand, feudalism depended on agriculture and pastoralism. The masses would acquire land and cattle in exchange for the agreement that they would remain loyal to the king and work for him. The king was then the chief landlord. He distributed land to his loyal subjects and soldiers. The advancement of productive forces in feudal societies was behind the advancement of major economic sectors namely; agriculture, mining, fishing, manufacturing industry and trade.
Advancement in technology notably, with iron technology feudal system came into place and became more efficient in production and protection. Population expanded with permanent settlement and improved life standards and trade due to production of surplus. Indeed man’s skills to control nature were improved.
The existence of different modes of production in Africa at the same time portrays the heterogeneous nature of African societies. They were divergent social communities at different levels of social, political, economic and technological developments. Communal societies lagged behind feudal societies.
General Characteristics of Pre-colonial African societies
Though at the time of colonisation African societies were at different levels of development with some still under Primitive Communal, some on transition to Feudalism (semi-feudal) and others already at Feudalism, they more or less shared some common features which included;
1. African societies were mostly scattered communities of independent producers clustered in different social groupings. They were mostly separated from each other over large areas with independent activities determined by the environment. Areas with abundant rains practiced permanent agriculture while those with less rains practiced shifting cultivation or pastoralism
2. The main production activity was based on family, clan or community.
The basic unit of production was the family. Nonetheless, because most of the communities based on kinship the whole community lived as family and hence a family affair was a community affair.
3. Productive forces were largely underdeveloped.
The highest technological stage reached by some societies was use of iron. But even societies with iron technology, labour instruments were still rudimentary as the commonest tool of production was the hand hoe. Due to low forces of production, subsistence economy was dominant.
4. Land was the most important object of labour.
Almost all man’s labour was exercised on making the land provide him all needs especially food. Land being the principle object of labour the common economic activities was agriculture.
5. Societies were self-sufficient producers.
Societies produced almost all their needs due to dominance of subsistence economy and limited basic needs, specifically food and security which basic economic activities like agriculture could provide. Though trade existed among some societies, it never meant that a community could not exist without others.
6. There was no wage labour and forced labour.
The purpose of work was not the creation of surplus but for the reproduction of the worker, his family and the community. In that sense, labour was not for sale but for the community. Even feudal societies labour was not coercive as tenants willingly entered into relations with landlords who were always the rulers.
7. There was no land alienation.
Land was communally owned. It belonged to the clan or at least a family and was distributed on kinship relationship based on cultural values and norms. This meant that land belonged to a large group of people and all community members even to feudal societies could get a share. Such an arrangement made land alienation really difficult.
8. Low population.
Pre-colonial African societies were mostly small communities with low population. Areas with fertile soils and sufficient rainfall like West Africa and Great Lakes region of East Africa had a relatively high population compared to arid areas.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
Most of African societies had well established settled communities with defined sociopolitical settings before colonialism. Indeed by end of the 16th C, mainly three types of socio-political organisations had emerged in Africa; Clan (kinship), Ag-set, and State organisations. The organisations can be classified (grouped) into two; stateless and state political structures. The diversity of political systems portrays the heterogeneous nature of pre-colonial African societies. It reveals the disparities in the level socio-political and economic development of African societies. The diversity of political systems was determined by a number of circumstances, notably;
1. The nature of climatic conditions that societies evolved.
The climate dictated the economic activities and type of settlement of society. It was a determinant of the population structure of society.
2. The material conditions within society, that is, nature and availability of natural resources a society possessed
3. The level of productive forces within society. Man’s ability to work on the provisions of nature like land and environmental provisions like land
4. The political philosophy of a particular society. This determined the socio-cultural perspective of a society. It was on this basis that feudal societies developed state organisations.
CLAN (KINSHIP) ORGANISATION
Clan Organisations were socio-political institutions of group of families sharing same ancestral origin (blood relations) organised together under one leader, the Clan-head. A clan (kinship) is a group family who are related to each other with same blood relations. The nucleus of a clan is a family which in other words, is the simplest unit of social organisation and basic unit of production. The family made of a husband, wife (wives) and a child (children).
Societies that were still under Clan Organisation at the time of colonisation included; Nyamwezi, Makonde, Yao, Mwera, kukuyu and kamba in East Africa and Luba and Lunda in central Africa.
Political Organization in Clan Organization
Clan Organisations were under clan-heads whose position was elective. The system was possible in settled communities. It operated under communalism, thus the means of production such as land and sometimes tools of production belonged to the whole clan and most of the products of the clan’s labour were shared out among the clan members. Land was entrusted to the Clan Heads whose role was to distribute it to clan members and also provided guidance in the production process. Other roles of the Clan-head included, settling disputes, protect clan traditions, presided over religious ceremonies, chose spouses for the young and officiating marriages and counselled the young. Each member of the clan was freely given as much land as he could cultivate. Clan organisations in Agricultural societies were either Patrilineal or Matrilineal societies like Makonde, Makua, Mwera, Kamba and Kikuyu.
Nyamwezi people dancing to "Ndelule" traditional Nyamwezi music from Tanzania
Environment in which Clan Organisations Developed
Clan organizations were common in the grassland plateaus with woodlands like in the Miombo woodlands in central Tanzania mainland where rainfall is seasonal and in areas where population was sparse and scattered. Soil in parts of these areas leached easily and in the process washed away the fertility of the soil hence easily exhausted when cultivated.
Economic Activity of Clan Organisation
The main occupation under Clan Organisation depended on the environment. In open grasslands, they practiced agriculture on shifting cultivation with seasonal crops such as millet, sorghum and Maize due to seasonal rainfall. Some societies like the Sukuma, Nyamwezi and Gogo under their Ntemiship systems practiced mixed farming; both crop cultivation and animal keeping. In this system, the Miemi (leader) searched for new land and when found organised production by distributing it to the families in his clan for tilling (kutema which means cutting). Production was mainly for subsistence and due to low productive forces.
AGE-SET ORGANISATION
This was a system of social organisation where allocation of duties and responsibilities based on age and sex. People of the same age bracket and sex were initiated together. Initiations taught them their culture, history and responsibilities. After initiation they join their respective regiments (groups) to perform specified duties together. Seniority in each age-group depended upon age, wisdom and good character.
The system, like the clan organisation, was very democratic and operated under communal societies. Obedience was much emphasized. Trouble makers were punished by the community. And decisions on day to day issues were made by the people themselves in their age groups. Age-set system was much common in pastoral communities such as the Maasai, Turkana, and Fulani, but was also practiced by some agricultural communities like the Nyakyusa, and Kikuyu.
The Maasai
Age-set Organisation in Pastoral Communities
Pastoral communities led nomadic life since livestock keeping was their permanent activity. Being in Arid or semi-arid areas, their environment demands great efforts in search for pasture and water for themselves and their livestock. Due to low level of productive forces pastoral societies could not grow pastures neither tap underground water on their own hence only relied on rain for water and wild bushes for pastures. Besides, livestock keeping requires a continuous system of mobilising young men for feeding livestock, defence and offence for cattle rustling.
Such continuous duties required combined efforts and could not be limited to only the family therefore had to fall upon the entire community. They thus organised themselves in age-set groups. Each age group and sex was given its own responsibility to accomplish.
The Example of the Maasai Societies
The Maasai societies were grouped into four age regiments/groups.
a) Children of 0-8 years and women.
These were not directly involved in production. Their main task was to fulfill domestic duties that were mainly to cook food, milk animals, and attend to the young, sick and old. They involved in no economic activity outside the home.
b) The second group consisted of young boys aged 8-18 years.
These were directly concerned with livestock grazing and milking. They carried duties together with women.
c) The third age-set consisted of the middle-aged men; the Moran aged 20-40 years. These were the soldiers of the whole society.
The group’s duties were;
- To protect the whole community against attacks.
- Protect livestock/herds against wild animals and thieves (cattle rustlers).
- Searching for pasture and water. As animals were taken for grazing, the Moran escorted the herds as they moved far in search for pastures and water.
- Raiding neighbouring communities for livestock and other forms of wealth. Raiding was mainly to expand the size of herds and grazing zones.
- Collected tribute from traders reaching Maasai land.
d) The last group consisted of elders aged about 40 years and above; the Laibons. The group was further divided into three sub-groups; the junior elders, the elders, and the senior elders.
The Laibons had the following responsibilities;
- To ensure that there was peace and order in their society. By this, they settled disputes in society.
- They advised and provided counseling to the society. This was mainly on societal daily issues like cattle grazing and other societal orders.
- They provided training on the fulfillment of duties. Being the most experienced members of society, the Laibons possessed knowledge on all age-groups’ responsibilities.
- Controlled livestock and all properties on behalf of the communities.
- They were the top overseers of the spiritual and political matters of the community.
- They observed the respect of the norms, customs and ethics that governed the society.
- The most senior elder was the top most political and religious authority.
The Laibons were highly respected by the other age-groups due to their wisdom, experience and past contribution to the community.
The Moran
Age-set organisation in agricultural societies
Among the agricultural societies which developed Age-set organisations were the Nyakyusa, Kikuyu and Kamba.
The example of the Nyakyusa
The Nyakyusa were forced into Age-set system due to the rapid population growth. However, and fortunately, they had plenty of fertile land. So in order to prevent overpopulation they organised themselves on the basis of age-set. Due to availability of plenty of land, each age group had to clear its own land to establish its own village when it attained adult-hood. A ceremony called Obusoka was held to mark this passing of a new age-set into adult-hood.
Advantages of Age-Set System
1. The system enabled the existence of a well-disciplined hardworking and responsible society. It involved all members of society in performing different societal duties.
2. It was a good in providing a systematic defence system for the people and their properties like cattle. The responsibility to defend was entrusted to the energetic youth, like the Moran in the Maasai societies.
3. The system created a strong and able leadership like Laibon in the Maasai society. It was clear that the leaders of the society came from the eldest age-group of the society. That limited leadership contradictions to arise in age-set organisations.
4. Enabled a fair distribution of labour as each age-set group had to fulfill duties assigned to it. It left no room for laziness because all members of the society were directly occupied.
5. It promoted material production. The fair division of labour promoted specialisation. This enabled even pastoralism to be involved in material production.
6. It was much systematic, organised and reduced the problem of overpopulation through its system of labour, in which each age-set was involved in production. This was especially in agricultural societies like the Nyakyusa.
7. It prepared the pastoral societies to resist colonialism to a certain recognisable degree. The agents of colonialism did not favour to penetrate into pastoral societies due to strong anti-colonial resistance.
8. The system facilitated peaceful co-existence. There were no rivalries as people of different families lived and worked together in the same age-sets. Cases like fratricide did not exist
Disadvantages of Age-Set System
1. There were frequent clashes between agricultural and pastoral societies over land control. Pastoral communities encroached agricultural communities in search for food, pastures and water to feed their animals. Such practices led to clashes.
2. The raids of other societies by the youth like the Morans among the Maasai to increase the size of their herds put the society in jeopardy as it was vulnerable to attacks.
3. Women had no voice in the society. They could not become leaders and their work evolved not beyond domestic obligations.
4. There was a low level in the development of science and technology due to the migratory nature of their activities.
5. The age-set system stressed the quantity of the hard over the quality of the livestock. Efforts were focused on increasing the number of cattle and not their quality. This could lead to overgrazing, droughts and soil erosion and diseases Nagana/sleeping sickness.
Environment
Age-set organisations were mostly in dry areas (Arid and semi-arid areas). Such areas with scanty rainfall and high temperature such as in the Rift valley areas of Tanganyika and Kenya, Northern Uganda and Kenya, and in the Sahara desert region. In few cases however, the system existed in areas with abundant rainfall that practiced agriculture like the Nyakyusa and Kikuyu.
Economic Activity
Bearing the fact that, Age-set organisations mostly developed in Arid and semi-arid areas, the major economic activity was Nomadic livestock keeping. This economic activity demanded constant attention for the animals in search for grazing land and water and constant security against wild beasts and the invading cattle rustlers.
In few instances, permanent agricultural societies with plenty of fertile land faced with rapid population also organised themselves in the age-set basis to arrest over population.
STATE ORGANISATION
State is an organised political community in a defined territory controlled by one government - with administrative and military machinery, judicial functions and ability to collect taxes (tributes).
A state is a more complex political unit than clan organisations. It is a large political unit under specific government ruled by a chief or king, with administrative and judicial duties, commands of an army and collects taxes from the subjects who as well are obliged to be loyal to the ruler.
King Taharqa, Nubia
Environment under which states developed
States emerged in areas with reliable rainfall and fertile arable soils that supported permanent agriculture. Permanent crop cultivation needed permanent settlement and instruments of production due to the Continuous nature of the activity.
Economic activities
The main economic activity of states was permanent crop cultivation being favoured by abundant rainfall, fertile soils, permanent settlement and improved productive forces mainly supported by iron technology. Examples of states include those in the interlucatrine region; Buganda, Toro, Ankole and Karagwe whose main food was bananas.
Functions of the State
a) Make laws
b) Maintenance of law and order
c) Carrying out administrative functions
d) Protect citizens against external attacks
e) Collect taxes and tributes
f) Provide for the socio-economic welfare of the people
Factors for State Formation (expansion) in Africa
State formation in Africa was to a great extent due to the internal dynamics - the material conditions within African societies. Nevertheless, the material conditions did not operate in isolation as they were in hand supplemented by the natural and external factors. So the important factors for the state formation were;
1. Favourable geographical advantages. This was a combination of good climate with reliable rainfall and fertile soils. Such a climate favoured permanent food crop production that developed permanently settled communities and population expansion. This explains the emergence of powerful states like Buganda, Bunyoro and Karagwe in the Interlacustrine Region and Oyo, Dahomey and Benin in the Equatorial Region of West Africa.
2. Efficient leadership and administrative systems. Societies endowed with ambitious leaders like Mansa Musa of Mali, Kabaka Katerega of Buganda and Mkwawa of the Hehe, rose to greatness. Such leaders put in place strong administration and armies, united their people and organised production and trade. Efficient administrative system enforced law and order. Typical examples are the Parliamentary systems of Buganda (Lukiiko) and Oyo (Oyo Messi).
3. The role of trade. Participation in trading activities mainly, long distance trades had vital implication in the making of powerful states in pre-colonial Africa. They accumulated wealth through profits and taxes/tribute from traders and also firearms which they used to strengthen their states. Remarkably, the Trans-Saharan trade with the development of states like Mali and Songhai and the East African Long Distance trade with states like Buganda and Nyamwezi.
4. Strong armies. The role of strong armies like the Rugaruga of the Nyamwezi and Abarusula of Bunyoro cannot be underrated. The armies were instrumental in keeping law and order, defence against foreign invasions, conquest of weak neighbouring societies for expansion and for collection of tributes/taxes. By powerful armies men like Samore Toure of the Mandika, Mansa Musa of Mali and Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe of the Nyamwezi and Mkwawa of the Hehe were able to build large commercial empires.
Role of the Army in State Formation;
a) Defended states against foreign invention
b) Maintained internal stability by keeping law and order. This was done side by side with disciplining of law breakers.
c) Carrying out expansionist wars — through conquest and subduing of weak neighbours.
d) Collection of taxes and tributes
e) Enforced production, food and surplus for exchange in their states.
f) Raised leaders. Some state founding rulers like Sundiata Keita of Kangaba were military commanders.
g) Promoted trade by protecting traders along trading (caravan) routes
h) Conducted raids for slaves, cattle, women and food and other valuable items needed for wealth and trade.
5. Technological advancement. Most significant was iron technology that definitely improved productive forces greatly. Societies with Iron works like Buganda and Bunyoro advanced economic activities like agricultural, industry and trade. As iron instruments improved efficiency, food production increased to support population expansion and production of surplus was realised to make trade possible. Most crucial also was improvement in weaponry for state defence and expansion.
6. Population expansion. Population increase was mostly due to reliable food supply and security. It led to intense land competition between clans or societies leading to conquest of weak ones. Large population availed abundant supply of labour and armies for state building. High population in the Interlacustrine Region led to powerful states like Buganda and Toro and in West African forest region states like Oyo and Dahomey.
7. Migration. The early migrations played a vital role in state building as the moving peoples carried with them new skills in new areas where passed or settled. Notable case is the Ngoni Migration with formation of states like, Sotho, Ndebele and Hehe in South, Central and East Africa. In the Interlacustrine Region and the Congo, states like Buganda and Mani Kongo were largely due Eastern Bantu migration.
8. Conquest. Some clans or communities developed into powerful states by conquering weak neighbours to absorb their land and people. For example a small state of Kangaba expanded into weak neighbours like Kankan to form a large Mali Empire. Also King Shaka conquered the weak Nguni communities to build a strong Zulu Kingdom.
7. The role of religion. The influence of religion in state formation and growth was its uniting factor and significance in shaping leadership, administrative and judicial roles of societies. African traditional Religion, Islam and Christianity had greater role. Notable states where traditional religion was a strong factor include Buganda and ancient kingdoms of Ghana and Zimbabwe; Islam played a recommendable job in building of states like Egypt, ancient Mali, Songhai, Bornu and Mandika while Christianity was responsible for Ethiopia.
The Egyptian Pharaoh Kamose showing a battle plan map to a group of Kushites (nubian) nobleman during a war against the Hyksos in 1500 BC
TYPES OF STATES
Two types of states emerged in Africa;
i) Centralised states
ii) Decentralised States
1. Centralised States
Centralised states were political organisations with a central ruling authority. They are political organisations whose administrative powers were rested at the specific identified centre. At the helm (centre) of administration was the king or Emperor (Monarch) with supreme powers, who in most cases governed with the assistance of a parliament and body of ministers.
From 5th to 19th C Africa, centralised states included; Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Kanem Bonu, Asante, Dahomey, Benin, Oyo, Sokoto, Tokola and Mandika in West Africa; Bunyoro, Buganda, Toro, Ankole and the Hehe in East Africa; Egypt in North Africa; Ethiopia in North East Africa; Mwenemotapa, Ndebele and Gaza of Central Africa; Zulu, Swazi and Sotho of South Africa.
Mansa Musa. One of the greatest emperors of the Malian Empire. He came to power in 1307, he was perhaps the wealthiest ruler of his day, he is credited with the Golden Age of Mali.
Characteristics of Centralised States
a) Centralised authority.
At the centre of administration was a king with absolute authority to make all major political, social and economic decisions of the state. Also, he was supreme judge and controlled the wealth of the state. The Monarch was a symbol of Unity.
b) Hereditary succession.
Centralised states had royal families from which kings came. A successor could be named by king before his death or appointed by a council of elders from the departed king’s close relatives like his son or brother as per the customs of the state.
c) Standing army.
Centralised states had specific military forces comprising of well bodied trained soldiers with the king as commander in chief to maintain the internal stability, defend the state against external attacks and also conquest of weak neighbours.
d) Parliamentary system.
Due to complexity of administration, Kings ruled with the assistance of parliaments made of his appointed officials like ministers, nobles and clan heads whose duty was to advise the king on important matters. In Buganda for example was the Lukiiko under chief minister “Katikiro” and in Oyo was the Oyo Messi.
e) Covered large territory and high population.
Centralised states were complex organisations that incorporating many clans and sometimes many tribes through conquests or alliance making. For effective control states were divided into provinces which were put under chiefs and governors or Clan Heads to represent the king.
f) Payment of taxes and tributes.
The citizens of the kingdom and traders passing through the kingdom and vassal states were obliged to pay taxes or tributes to the metropolitan state. The king had full powers to direct the use of state incomes for example rewarding loyal officials.
g) Advanced productive forces.
Improvement in productive forces consolidated division of labour and specialisation, sometimes beyond the levels of age and sex. Specific areas of specialisation were farming, industry and trade. All these were supported by improved technology, notably iron working that also led to production of surplus for trade. h. Expansionist policy. Centralised States had a tendency of conquering their weak neighbouring societies to expand their territories for land, labour and wealth. The conquered were absorbed to be integral parts of the state or could remain semi-independent as vassal states.
Queen Amanirenas of Kush in Nubia (Sudan)
THE BUGANDA KINGDOM
The Buganda Kingdom was geographically on the shores of Lake Victoria; that means it is found in the interlacutrine region. It grew to its apex by the mid of the 19 th C. This was highly centralized monarchy and was one of the daughter states that came into existence after the collapse of the vastly expanded Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom. By the second half of the 19 th C Buganda became one of the strongest and largest Kingdoms in the interlacustrine region. They conquest and controlled several Kingdoms. Buganda Kingdom was under the leadership of Kabaka Mutesa.
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