FORM FIVE HISTORY TOPIC 2: AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY
TOPIC 2: AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY
What was Africa like in the 15th century?
2. Explain six significances of exchange in the society
3. Show three similarities and three difference in the African and trading system in the 15th c
4. Elaborate six effects of the Long Distance trade in the political and economic development East and central Africa up to the 19th century. (NECTA 2013)
5. By using six points, analyse the impact of the intercontinental trade on the development of European political, social and economic systems in the 15th century. (NECTA 2016)
6. Analyse the social impact of trade contacts between Europe and Africa in the 15th century. (Give three points for each continent). (NECTA 2017)
7. Explain the level of political development in Africa and Western Europe in the 15th century.
8. Analyse three similarities and three differences between African and European feudal system during the 15th century. (NECTA 2015)
9. Show in six points the level of technological development reached by Africa in 15th century.
10. Compare and contrast the level of development of science and technology between African and European societies in the 15th century.
11. Analyse the factors which contributed to the rise of the gap in development between western Europe and Africa since the 15th century
12. Discuss the factors for the rise of the gap between Western Europe and Africa between the 17th and 19th centuries.
13. Elaborate eight factors that favoured the development of Europe at the expense of Africa between the 15th and 20th centuries. (NECTA 2012)
14. Discuss six factors which accelerated disparity in development between Africa and Western Europe from the 15th century. (NECTA 2014)
15. Marine technology played a big role in the widening of the gap between Africa and Europe. Comment with six arguments.
16. By the 15th century African societies were developing in the line with western European societies. Analyse the statement with clear evidences.
17. Despite Africa and Europe were almost at the same level of development in the 15th C, Europe was ahead of Africa in some aspects. Show the validity of the statement in six points.
18. Analyse the social, political and economic development attained by Africa by the 15th C.
19. Use six points to distinguish the level of development between Africa and Europe in the 15th century. (NECTA - Private Candidates 2015)
20. Africa developed Western Europe, in the same proportion Western Europe underdeveloped Africa. Justify.
AFRICA AND EUROPE IN THE 15TH CENTURY
There are divergent views that have been advanced by various historians regarding the African continent when it came into contact with capitalist in Europe. According to Eurocentric scholars, they claimed that before the advent of colonial rule, African societies didn’t have any kind of development; however African scholars argued that the continent had achieved a significant level ofdevelopment in economic, social and political aspects.
Development can be defined as the improvement in economic, social and political aspects.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
i. Development in Trade
There are strongevidences of trading activitiesin pre colonial Africa. There were different types of trade i.e. local and long distancetrade.
Local trade was the type of trade that was conducted within a given community.
Long distance trade was the type of trade which took place between one region and another. There was a long distance trade in east Africa which took place between the interior and coastal people of east Africa.
The main participants were the kamba and nyamwezi from the interior and the Arabs and Swahili traders from the coast.
ii. Development in Agriculture
By the fifteen century agriculture had developed in Africa. There were varioustypes of agriculture in pre colonial Africa. These included permanent crop cultivation and shiftingcultivation.
Permanent crop cultivation took placein areas that received a lot of rainfall and fertile land. Mixed farming took place in those areas whose soil lost its fertility easily, thus forcing the farmers to shift from one piece of land to another land looking for fertile land. Mixed farming was widely practiced in the savanna region.
iii. Development in Manufacturing Industries.
By the 15th century Africa had developed a number of manufacturing industries such as salt making and copper mining. Salt making took place at Tagaza and Bilma in West Africa and uvinza in Tanganyika. Salt was not only used as an ingredient but also for preserving perishables.
Copper mining activities found in Africa by the 15 th century. Copper was only used for making ornaments. In central Africa, the Katanga region was famousfor mining and processing copper. Copper mining also took place along the Gwai River in Zimbabwe
iv. Development in Maritime technology.
To a certain extent African societies had developed maritime technology, this was around water bodies. The societies that had acquired this technology are the Ganda and kerewe in east Africa; these were making canoes that facilitated their movement along rivers and lakes.
v Iron technology.
By the 15th century most parts of Africa had developed the art of making iron and using iron. In Africa the knowledge of making iron and use of iron tools developed at different times and at different places. The first places to use iron were Ethiopians and Egyptians. At around 200BC Meroe & Axum became important sector for the production of iron
POLITICAL SYSTEMS (DEVELOPMENT)
During the 15th century, there were various political organizations in pre colonial Africa. This included the following
i. Age Set System.
This refers to the allocation of social functions according to sex and age groups. This system was mainly practiced by pastoral societies such as the Maasai of east Africa.
The Maasai assigned social functions according to age groups. Example; from age of 0 – 8 no social functions were given, from 8 – 18 years, the boys were supposed to graze the animals.
ii. Clan Organization.
This refers to control by clan head. This system mainly developed in the savanna region. The main economic activities were mixed farming and shifting cultivation.
Mixed farming involved the cultivation of crops and animal keeping. Shifting cultivation involved the movement from one place to another searching for fertile landbecause the soil easily loses itsfertility.
Shifting cultivation made land very important, therefore societies needed strongleadership that would control and distribute land thus the rise of clanorganization.
iii. State Organization.
The state is a large political unity with a heterogeneous population having a centralized system with powers to collect tributes. Most of the states in Africa were formed in the interlacustrine region which received heavy rainfall throughout the year.
This type of environment supported the increase in production that led to increase in population thus contributing to the formation of states such as Buganda and Karagwe in east Africa.
FACTOR FOR THE RISE OF STATE IN AFRICA & EUROPE
There was feudal centralized state where the power was in hand feudula lords
i. Changingof Trade organization, (to mechantalism) ii. Organization of security
iii. Encouragement of production within empires for market
iv. Formation of foreign policy (colonial policy) abroad so as to have primitive accumulation through piracy, banditry and looting.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST WESTERN EUROPEAN POLITICAL SYSTEM WITH AFRICAN ONES IN THE 15TH CENTURY.
Comparison
vBoth were ruled by kings or queen or chiefs – Example, Mani Nzinga – Congo.
vFunctions of the king were the same, in protection of citizens and defense for security for development and growth of the state.
vBoth defend or encourage exploitation of serfsby land lords.
vBoth encourage trade. Example in Africa, were engage in long distance trade while In Europe – merchantiletrade.
Contrasts
ØDuration of the modal/centralized state in Africa it was in pre- mature while in Europe of was reached, its mature.
ØEmergence of merchants who challenged the rolling class while inAfrica was not so.
ØIn Europe was Broad rolling class (complex) while in Africa was veryparochial.
ØIn Europe states Formation appeared after the turn of Roman Empire for disintegration of slavery (and of slavery in Europe while in Africa was not produced as a mode of production.
ØIn Europe 15th, there were great changes in Feudalism; it was highest peak and break down to give room to capitalism.
ØEnclosure system in Europe while in Africa wasnot so Ø Highest level of education in Europethan Africa.
i. Education
This refers to the transmission of skills, knowledge and norms from one generation to the other. By the 15th century Africa had its own education system whichwas largely informal in character.
The young people acquired knowledge by imitating the behavior of the elders. However it should be noted that there was literacy in pre colonial Africa especially alongthe Nile River in Egypt and Mali
ii. Religion
There is strong evidence that by the 15th century Africa had its own religion. Religious ceremonies were presided over by community elders, Example the laibon of the Maasai and the clan heads of clan organization.
These elders were responsible for supervising religious ceremonies likeorganizing sacrifices.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRADE IN THE SOCIETIES BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
1. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to specialization.
This was where by a group of people emerged and specialized in different economic activities for example in Africa they emerged a group of specialized in agriculture, fishing, iron melting, pastoralism and trade as well as in Europe there was emerged of groups of people who specialized in different economic activities such as traders (merchant kings), people who specialized in farming etc.
2. Both trade found in Africa and Europe during the 15th C led to the development of science and technology in African and European societies.
For Example It led to the development of ship building and, marine technology and compass bearingwhere by traders used advanced to travel in other parts of the world to look for raw materials, market, cheap labour etc. while in Africa there was development of different science and technologies which enabled traders to travel from one areas to another. For Example in West Africa traders across Trans-Saharan desert used camels from (West Africa) to (North Africa) used horse as means of transport.
3. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of state (state formation).
for example in Africa Ghana, Songhai, Mali, Oyo, Benin, Mwanamutapa empire, Mirambo empire as well as in Europe there was emergence of states especially inBritainand later onin France due to the trade.
In Addition to that, the trade found in both Africa and Europe led to emergenceof trading centers and growth of towns which later led to urbanization in both Africa and Europe.
Example in Dodoma, Walata, Gao, Jere, but we also had some towns like Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa, Pete, Lamu etc. as well as in Europe there ware towns due to trade such as Liverpool, Yorkshire, Manchester, Venice, etc.
4. Both trades in Africa and Europe lead to emergence of goods and strong leaders
These political leaders were normally used later controlled the state for examplein Africa Mansa Kankan Musa (Mali), Askia Mohamed (Songhai), and Mwenemutapa (Mwenemutapa Empire).
5. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of strong army.
This which was well disciplined to protect state and its routes for example in Britain there was emergence of navy army.
6. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led to emergence of people who later became rich because of being involving in the system of exchange in the societies.
For Example Kings and individual traders who involved were involved in the trade became rich. For Example in Africa Mansa Musa, Askia, Samouri Toure, Mirambo, Mwenemutapa and In Europe Kings also became rich because they got muchprofit from trade.
7. Both trades found in Africa and Europe led emergence of strong faith because the trade lead to unity among the people in the society.
For example the Trans-Saharan trade in Africa led to emergence of Islamic faith West and North Africa while in some East African societiestherewas emergence of Christianity due long distance trade (LTD) as well as in Europe there were emergence of Christianity due totrade conducted between European societies.
8. Trades especially in Europe during 15th C lead to the growth of industries.
This was where by different industries were built using the wealth accumulated from trade. For Example Textile industries, Agricultural equipment industries.etc
9. Trade especially in Europe led to establishment of financial institutions.
Financial Istitution which were established included, like banks such asBarclays, House Lord in Britain after the merchant Kings and other. Traders had accumulated profit from the trade conducted between European nations and other continents of the world.
IMPACTS OF TRADE (SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE) BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE DURING THE 15TH CENTURY
1. The Trade Led to Stagnation of African Technology
This was simply because Africans who were skillful and knowledgeable were taken as slaves to offer their labour in big plantations and mining established by European absentee owners in America during the 15th C.
2. The Trade also led to Exploitation of African Natural Resources. Categories of raw material which were normally exploited were such asminerals, raw materials etc was taken specifically for the development of European nations.
3. The trade conducted between Africa and Europe during 15th century lead to destruction of African culture and introduction of European culture in Africa.
Because it was during this contact African way of living, dressing style, marriage, eating Etc were destroyed by Europeans as Africans began to imitatewhat Europeans brought to African societies.
4. Trade contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC led to fall and rise of some African states.
African states which existed before the contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC collapsed like western sudanic states (Ghana, Songhai.etc.) while some other African states like Dahomey emerged due to the fact that their leaders and prosperity of the statedepended on the triangular slave trade.
5. Trade lead to the collapse of African trade that existed before the 15thC.
Hence led to underdevelopment of African continent and development of European nations simply because it was that trade that culminated the situation for European development in all aspects (socially, economically and politically) and Africanunderdevelopment in all aspects.
6. The Contact between Africa and Europe during the 15thC paved way for African colonization.
Simply because this trade is the one which led to the influx of agents of colonialism such as trades, missionaries and explorers started their colonial ambition in Africa to explore the potential areas such as agricultural areas, mineral areas, lakes (water bodies) etc. hence colonialism.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE BY THE 15TH CENTURY
Similarities
1. Both Africa and Europe had developed in medicine technology to cure various diseases whereby they use roots, herbs and drugs to cure somediseases like malaria, cholera, etc.
2. Both societies had developed in iron technology where by some agricultural tools and many things were made both in Africa and Europe; example in Africa iron technology was found in Mwenemutapa Empire, Engaruka and inBritain, France.etc.
3. Both in Africa and Europe societies engaged in cultivation of crops; for example in Egypt there was a high development of farming activities especially through irrigation system along the river Nile especially during thedry seasons.
In Zambezi basin there was agricultural development in which people practiced intensive terracing farming and in Europe there was use of irrigation system and use of scientific methods of farming during enclosure system
4. Both societies engaged in handcraft activities for example both societies made things like pots, baskets, mats and other vessels for their own development.
5. Both societies developed in navigation technology
For example in Europe there was ship building industries compass direction and compass bearing where by European merchant were used to cut across big seas and ocean while in Africa societies used canoes and dhows as the major means of water transport; for example along Nile river, along the shore of Lake Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa.etc. Canoes were used for fishing and ferrying people and goods from one place to another.
6. Both societies (Africa and Europe) had developed in an architecture engineeringtechnology.
For example in the ancient Mwenemutapa Empire around Zimbabwe, Egypt and Sudan there were great architecture technology. for example in Zimbabwe they built 30/20 feet high by using stones and in Egypt at Giza plateau near Cairo the great pyramids consisted of two million of block of stones each weighing more than two tones like in Europe there were big buildings found in big towns of Europe like Paris, London.etc.
7. Both societies made weapons for self defense, security and conqueringweak states.
For example both societies made weapons like swords, arrows, axes, spears, machetes, aves, shields and matchetguns.
Differences
1. European societies were highly developed in animal breeding under enclosure system while Africahad not developed animal breeding under enclosure system.
2. Africans were highly advanced in animal husbandry than European societies this might be even up to now.
3. European societies were in transition from domestic (Cottage industries) to factory system (big manufacturing industries) than in Africa where there is no any sign of transition to factory system.
4. European societies were advanced more in navigation technology than in Africa. for example by the 15th C European societies had ship building technology, compass direction and compass bearing which helped European merchant to cut across big oceans and seas to tradewith other societies of the world while Africans used canoes to paddle and dhows in order to navigate in big rivers and along the shores of lakes and oceans.
5. Europeans were more advanced in gun making and bombs than Africans; the gun smiths were better than those of Africa in 15th C. This shows the reason why the Europeans (particularly the Portuguese) managed to defeat African societies easily along the coast of IndianOceanand managed to establish city states along East African coast.
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE RISE OF MERCANTILISM IN EUROPE
There are various factors that contributed to the riseof mercantilismin Europe;
a) Improvement of Science and Technology.
This played a great role to the rise of mercantilism.Maritime technology made it possible for the European countries to conduct trade overseas. The ships
enabled the transportation of large quantities of goods to various countries inthe world.
b) Development of Internal Trade.
The development of internal trade contributed significantly to the rise of mercantilism because it introduced various items of trade. These goods were exchanged with other goods during the Trans – Atlantic slave trade, the Europeans provided Africans with clothes and spirit in return for goods such as gold and silver.
c) Enclosure System.
The enclosure system involved passing laws by the parliament whereby wealthy land owners bought land from the peasants. The small peasants and commonland in villages of Britain had to be grouped together and out under individual capitalist’s farms. The enclosure system increased agricultural production that facilitatedtrading activities.
d) Development of the Banking System.
There were various banks that were established in Britain e.g. Barclays bank. These banks contributed to the rise of mercantilism by providing loans and grants to the merchants who wanted to trade overseas.
e) Rise of Nation States.
The rise of nation states contributed to the rise of mercantilism in Europe. European monarchies such as the Tudor monarchy played a great role in the rise of mercantilism by giving security to the merchants which encouraged them to engage in mercantile activities.
f) Geographical Discoveries.
This was made by different scholars, contributed to the rise of mercantilism. Christopher Columbus discovered America which was followed by the establishment of capitalist enterprises such as farms and mining which encouraged tradingactivities.
g) Rise of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade.
The Trans Atlantic slave trade was an economic system that involved three continents i.e. Africa, Europe and America. The trading system consolidated mercantilism by making it possible for European countries to trade with Africa and America. Africa provided slaves, America produced raw materials and Europeprovided manufactured goods.
THE ROLE OF THE TUDOR MONARCHY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MERCANTILISM IN ENGLAND
Before the industrial revolution, the dominant form of capital in Western Europe was merchant capital, it was capital obtained from trade. Western Europe came into contact with the rest of the world through trade; this system of trade is known as mercantilism.
The development of mercantilism in England went through two faces namely; a) First phase which took placefrom mid 15thC – mid 17th C.
b) Second phase whichtook place from mid 17th C – mid 18th C.
The first phase was associated with the Tudor monarchy was an English dynasty that descended from King Henry VII to Elizabeth I.
The Tudor monarchy played a significant role in the rise of mercantilism in England.
a) Acquisition of Colonies.
The Tudor monarchy helped the merchants to acquire colonies. Colonies were important in the whole system of mercantilism because they provided markets and raw materials such as gold and silver which were needed by the merchants.
b) Chartered Trading Companies.
The Tudor monarchy charted trading companies had given them exclusiverights to trade all over the world. The most importance of these companies were the royal Africa company charted in 1588 in order to organize slave trade and east India company chartered in 1600 for trading with India and the far east including chinaand Japan.
c) Set up Navigation Acts.
The Tudor monarchy set up navigational acts of the 17 th C which were introduced to monopolize the rights to transport goods into and from the colonies as well as the profits obtained from transportation between the mother land and the colony.
d) Ensured Constant Supply of Wool.
The Tudor monarchy assured the merchants constant supply of wool by stopping the export of wool. Wool was important as a raw material in the textile
industries. The textile industries were very important during the early days of the industrial revolution in Britain.
e) Promoted Organization.
The Tudor monarchy provided organization of merchant groups for the exploitation and settlement in the new world. By the 17 th C, many Britonswereinvesting overseas, these included members of parliament and merchants.
f) Security.
The Tudor monarchy assured the merchants protection on the high seas from pirates. Mercantilism was characterized with primitive accumulation of capital; one of the methods used to acquire capital was piracy, thus the assurance of protection encouraged the merchants to engage in trade.
g) Provided Loans.
The Tudor monarchy provided loans and grants to the merchants, the provisions of loans and grants encouraged the merchants to engage inmercantile activities thus leading to the development of mercantilism in Britain.
h) Developed and Consolidated Maritime Technology.
The Tudor monarchy contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britainby developing and consolidating maritime technology. Maritime technologymade it possible for the merchants to trade overseas with Africa and America thus the rise of mercantilism.
i) Discarded Feudal Elements.
The Tudor monarchy abandoned feudal elements and promoted capitalism, this led to the emergency of the merchant class. The merchant class conducted tradeoverseas which contributed to the rise of mercantilism.
SOURCES OF PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION OF CAPITAL DURING MERCANTILISM
a) Long Distance Trade.
The capitalists obtained capital from the long distance trade that was conducted among various continents such as Africa, America and Asia. This was the Trans Atlantic slave trade. European countries acquired capital by accumulating precious metals such as gold and silver which was based on unequal exchange.
b) Crusades
These wars were fought between the Muslims and the Christians from the 11th to 12th centuries. The Christians claimed that these were holly wars which aimed at the holly lands from the Arabs. It should be noted that the wars were accompanied with massive looting which formed the basis of primitive accumulation of capital.
c) Confiscation of Church Property.
The church in England controlled large estates of land but between 1535 and 1539 AD. King Henry VIII following the advice of his chief minister ThomasCromwell decided to confiscate church property. The land was grabbed and sold to thecapitalist; this capital was acquired by using primitive means.
d) Feudal Wars.
The feudal wars were very common in Europe especially between 1337 and 1453 AD. There was the hundred year’s war between the French and the British monarchies. These wars were characterized with plundering and looting which help the European powers to accumulate capital that contributed to therise of capitalism.
e) Enclosure System.
This system involved evicting peasants and serfs from their land. The land was sold to the capitalist who organized it into compact forms and enclosed it. The enclosure system contributed to the improvement of the agriculture sector which led to the rise of the industrial revolution, but the eviction of the peasants and serfs was a primitive act.
f) Protectionist Policies.
Mercantilism was associated with protectionism especially in England which was the major power during the mercantile period. The Tudor monarchyintroduced navigational acts that denied other countries from trading freely with England and her colonies. This aimed atprotecting the British interests.
WHY BRITAIN SUCCEEDED IN MERCANTILE TRADE
Britain was the most successful nation in Europe in mercantile trade especiallyduring the second phase which took place between the 15th and 18th centuries. Britain was also the first country to industrialize because it was very active during mercantilism. There are many factors that aided Britain to dominate mercantilism in Europe or the world.
i. Role of Tudor Monarchy.
The Tudor monarchy played a great role in the development of mercantilism in Britain and ensuring that the country became the most powerful during the mercantile period. The monarchy acquired colonies that provided raw materials and markets to the merchants and it also promoted political stability that encouraged domestic production.
ii. Development of Maritime Technology.
Maritime technologyfirst developed on a larger scale in Britain then it spread to other countries. Maritime technology facilitated inters–continental trade that greatly contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britain. Ever sincethe 14th C Britain has been enjoying an extra advantage over navy supremacy than other European nations and used this advantage to dominate mercantile trade.
iii. Increase in Internal Production.
There are various changes that took place in the agricultural and industrial sectors in Britain. These changes boosted internal production that stimulated trade with other countries. Britain traded with north and South America, Asia and Africa thus she was able to dominate other countries in mercantile activities.
d) Acquisitionof colonies.
Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and China. These coloniesguaranteed the merchants sources of raw material and markets thus leading to thedevelopment of mercantilism in Britain.
iv. Imposition of Protective Tariffs.
The establishment of navigation acts of the 17th C provided moral and material support to the merchants by protecting them from competition. By this law, all goods exported to British colonies had to be carried by British ships and all goods from British colonies were supposed to be shipped first to Britain before exporting them to other countries. The navigation acts played a crucial role in helping Britain to dominate mercantilism.
v. Enclosure System.
Britain was the first country to implement the enclosure system in the 16th century. The enclosure system involved grouping all peasants and commonland in the villages in two compact forms, this land was subjected to commercial production. The enclosure system led to increase in production which contributed to the development of mercantilism.
vi. Exploitation of Other Countries.
Britain was able to exploit heavily the weak nations, Portugal depended heavily on the military support from Britain against her rivals such as Spain and inreturn Britain got economic gains. These activities contributed to the development of mercantilism in Britain.
THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
This refers to the type of trade that involved three continents Africa, America and Europe. In this trading system, Africa was the source of cheap labor whichwas in the form slaves. America was the source of raw materials and Europe was the source of manufactured goods, hence the triangle. The mainparticipants were Britain, France, Holland and Portugal.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE There are various factors that contributed to the rise of the Trans Atlantic slavetrade
1. Discovery of the New World.
The discovery of the new world that is America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 contributed to the rise of Trans Atlantic slave trade. The Europeans rushed to America and established plantations and mining centers which demanded for labor, this necessitated the importation of Africans thus the beginning of the Trans Atlantic slave trade.
2. Discovery of Maritime Technology.
The discovery of the art of making ships and compass direction played a fundamental role in the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade, this technologymade it possible for Europeans to trade with various countries across the Atlantic Ocean.
3. The Inability of the Indigenous People.
At first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red Indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers; but these later died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of the Trans Atlantic slavetrade.
4. The Establishment of Plantations.
After the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked to America; theseincluded the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants established plantations that caused more demand for slave labor. The increased demand contributed to the development of Trans–Atlantic slavetrade.
5. Accessibility.
The accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow thus it made it possible for the transportation ofgoods between thetwo regions.
EFFECTS OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE IN AFRICA
The Trans Atlantic slave trade was a disaster to Africa. It is one of the factors which contributed to under development in Africa.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
i. Removal of African Labor.
The Trans Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many Africans who were taken to provide cheap labor on European plantations in America. The ones who were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 whomadeup the productive force in Africa.
ii. Stagnation of African Technology.
The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for slaves. Due to these goods, the Africans found it easier to sell their fellow Africans in exchange for manufactured goods hence they neglected production which led to the stagnation of African technology.
iii. Decline of African Agricultural Production.
There was decline in agricultural production due to the loss of labor. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their removal led to shortage of labor consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
iv. Decline of African Traditional Industries.
It contributed to the decline of African traditional industries due to the flooding of European manufactured goods. Due to these goods Africans abandoned
production and exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also destroyed African traditional industriesby killing the market for African local goods.
v. Insecurity.
The major item of trade during the Trans–Atlantic slave trade was slaves. The slaveswere acquired through release of ambushing and raiding various villages, these activities contributed to insecurity which disrupted trade and agriculture.
SOCIAL EFFECTS i. Depopulation.
It led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America as cheap labor. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000 Africans were taken as slaves.
ii. Famine.
The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in agricultural production.
iii. Erosion of African Culture.
The Trans Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional valuesbecauseAfricans were coping European culture.
iv. Break Down Families.
There was break down of families because various members were taken as slaves.
POLITICAL EFFECTS
i. Fall of States
The Trans Atlantic slave trade contributed to the collapse of some states in West Africa, these included Oyo and Benin. These states collapsed because of slave trading activities which led to famine and depopulation consequently leading their decline.
CONTRIBUTION OF MERCANTILISM TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISM IN EUROPE
Mercantilism had great impact in the development of industrial revolution and the eventual transformation of European countries into big powers. The European countries accumulated capital for around 300 years. It should be noted that mercantilism was a blessing to Europe, but a tragedy to Africa. The contribution of mercantile trade to the developing of European industrial capitalism included the following;
1. Accumulation Capital.
The European countries acquired a lot of capital from mercantilism. The countries were able to accumulate a lot of capital throughout the 300 years of mercantilism through unequal exchange, the obtained precious metals such as gold, silver and diamond which they used to finance theindustrial revolution.
2. Source of Cheap Labour.
Mercantilism was associated with slave trade, during this period millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America, where they provided.
Different historians advance various opinions about Africa and Europe before the point of contact with Europe. The afro-centric or Marxist historians do say that before the point of contact between the two Africa and Europe, the level of development was almost the same.
In fact Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, said that in some aspects Africa was above Europe e.g.in form of cotton cloth which was widely manufactured before the coming of Europeans. Local cotton from the Guinea coast were strong than Manchester cotton from Britain, in Katanga Zambia the local copper was preferred to the imported items Europe and the same held true for iron in place like Sierra Leone.
It is from the 15th C that the development gap between the two begun to widen the more. From that time the unequal relationship between the two was firmly established. As Europe begun to steadily advance politically, economically and technologically, Africa was retarded and entered the trend of underdevelopment.
We as contemporary historians we should examine the development levels and comparisons in the levels attained by the two continents, their socio-political, economic and technological aspects need to be analysed.
SYSTEMS OF EXCHANGE IN AFRICA AND EUROPE IN (BY) THE 15TH CENTURY
System of exchange refers to trading activities that involve transfer of ownership of goods and services form one person (group of people) to another for profit making. So, for trade to take place there must be exchange of either goods for goods or services or money. The exchange of goods for goods or services is barter system of trade while the exchange of goods or services for cash is referred to as monetary system of exchange. Trade developed as a result of development of productive forces that made it possible for surplus production.
By the 5th C both Europe and Africa had developed similar systems of exchange but with little variations. Trading contacts between Europe and Africa however, are known to have started during the 14th C BCE, when the Greeks began to trade with Egypt. Also with the Trans-Saharan Trade, traders from Europe contacted North and West African traders.
The Role of Trade
1. To arrest scarcity.
Societies engage in exchange to acquire goods that are insufficient or that they are lacking so as to satisfy their demands.
2. To deal with surplus.
Trade is a means to release goods societies have in excess. Through trade losses would be avoided as the goods will be released profitably.
3. For wealth acquisition.
Through trading transaction profits are acquired. By accumulating profits trade dealers attain wealth.
4. Trade encourages production.
The desire for wealth stimulated the exploitation of resources and skills as man struggles to make goods needed for market.
5. Provides employment.
It engages many like craftsmen in the production process and many such as dealers in the process of transactions. Some people specialise as merchants.
6. Improve relations between societies.
Trading societies develop friendlier relations between themselves through reciprocal benefits that makes them complement each other.
7. Trade is a source of income.
Government generate income through taxes while people involved in exchange acquire income through profits and wages (employment).
Systems of Exchange in Africa by the 15th Century
The development of systems of exchange in Africa like other places was an outcome of the development of productive forces that was accompanied by emergence of division of labour and specialisation on different skills like industry and agriculture. Such developments increased productivity that led to surplus production.
By the 15th C, Africa was engaged in various trading systems namely;
- The Trans-Saharan Trade conducted among the West African societies, North Africa and Asia and Europe. The trade was organised by West African people, the Berbers of the Sahara region and North Africa, the Arabs from the Middle East and the Europeans in exchange of goods like gold, hides and salt from Africa and firearms, cloth and glassware from abroad.
- The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. This was conducted among Europe, Africa and the Americas. Africa was contacted by the European maritime traders. The main items collected from Africa were slaves and bullions. European merchants brought manufactured goods like cloth, glassware, porcelain, alcohol and perfumes to Africa.
- Long Distance Trade of East and Central Africa that involved the people of East and Central Africa trading with the coastal traders the Arabs, Indians and Europeans. Goods exchanged from Africa included gold, copper and slaves and from abroad included cloth, glassware, beads and perfumes. The major organisers of the trade were the Yao, Nyamwezi and Kamba.
In Africa the barter system of exchange was dominant. This subjected Africa to unequal exchange as her valuable goods like gold, silver and slaves were exchanged for cheap goods like cloth, glassware, perfume and alcohol from Europe. However, with time, certain scarce items like gold and cowry shells were used as the standard of measure - medium of exchange.
There was existence of specialised classes of traders in some societies. The expansion of trade and specialisation in some regions led to the emergence of classes of people that did not involve in any other economic activity other than trade. The Marabounds among the Mandika, the Berbers of North Africa and Ndewa among the Nyamwezi are just a few examples.
African societies engaged in exchange mainly to arrest scarcity. Their main goal was to acquire goods they could not make or that were insufficient. It was mainly made for subsistence purposes than for wealth accumulation. Wealth accumulation was a target of mainly the ruling classes. Trade had developed at all levels; local, regional and intercontinental. At local level, societies exchanged between each other for handicrafts, foodstuffs and iron products. Regional and intercontinental trading systems linked regions of Africa with the outside world. The reference is the Trans-Saharan Trade that connected West Africa, North Africa, Asia and Europe.
African Traders
Systems of Exchange in Europe by the 15th Century
In the 15th C, Western Europe was becoming more concerned with intercontinental trade. It was during the time when Mercantilism started due advancement of marine technology. They contacted overseas lands, namely, Africa the America and Caribbean.
The major driving force for trade in Western Europe was wealth accumulation. Participation in mercantilism by states such as France. England and Spain, majorly looked at collection of the highly valued gold and silver (bullions) which were determinant of wealth and power.
In the 15th C, Europe had started transformation to a monetary system. In the beginning the bullions were used as money. That pushed European states to move around the world to search for bullions. Later coinage and paper money were introduced as the volume of trade expanded.
Rise of a class of specialised merchants. These arose from the middle class, aristocrats and nobles that had capital to invest in trade, industries and ships. As these gained more experience, they organised themselves in trading companies like the Dutch East Indian Company.
Comparisons of the Systems of Exchange in Africa and Europe in (by) the 15th C
Similarities
1. Trade was supported by powerful states.
The Tudor monarchy of England under King Henry VII, King Henry of Portugal and Queen Isabella of Spain for example took deliberate measures to promote mercantilism. In Africa states like Mali under Mansa Musa and Songhai under Askia Muhammad provided security to traders and promoted production.
2. Africa like Europe had passed through all levels of trade; local, regional and international.
In Africa, the Trans-Saharan trade between West and North Africa, Asia and Europe is an illustration of such regional and international trade systems. For Europe it was mercantilism through which Europe contacted overseas lands, Africa, the Caribbean and America.
3. The two continents had developed trading systems.
The Trans-Saharan trade that started from the 4th C was still in operation in the 15th C between North and Western Africa. Likewise was the trading system between the East African coast and the Middle East. In the 15th C, mercantilism started through which Europe contacted Africa and the New World for wealth.
4. Both possessed specialised classes of merchants.
In Europe the class of rich merchants arose from the aristocrats, landlords and rich peasants. In Africa the organised groups of traders included the Ndewa of Nyamwezi, the Marabounds of Mandika and Berbers of North Africa.
5. In both continents, the barter system was still dominant.
When Europe started contacts with Africa in the 15th C, European merchants exchanged item like, firearms, gunpowder and cloth for slaves, bullions and tropical items like ivory, animal skins and beeswax from Africa.
6. Wealth was acquired by unscrupulous means.
European and African states acquired wealth by plundering. European states acquired it through slavery, unequal exchange and colonisation. Yet African societies raided their weaker neighbours for slaves and bullions.
Differences
In the 15th C European trade was more intercontinental than local or regional. it was the period of the start of Mercantilism when Europe contacted overseas’ lands like Africa and the Americas. The system was supported by advanced maritime and manufacturing technology. Contrary to that, African trade was more local and regional due technological limitations.
Trading system of the 15th C in Europe amassed extraordinary amount of wealth which was invested for development like in industries. In contrast to Africa the trading systems, led to underdevelopment due to technological stagnation, unequal exchange and slave trade.
By the 15th C Europe was developing a monetary system. In the beginning bullions were introduced as a standard measure - medium of exchange — later coinage was introduced. In Africa the barter system was still dominant with only a few societies using scarce commodities like salt, cowry shells and gold as medium of exchange.
The purpose of exchange also differed. In Europe trade through mercantilism was purposely for wealth accumulation. That is why the European merchants took the risk to travel overseas mainly for the collection of bullions. In Africa trade mainly focused on arresting scarcity, that is, to acquire what they could not produce due to low technology.
Participation in trade differed in the two continents. In Europe the entire Western Europe and many others like Sweden and Denmark participated in overseas trade. Africa only a few mostly coastal states and strong states like Mali and Songhai were directly involved in trade.
Europe had developed well organised class of professional merchants, who had specialised in only trade, possessing huge capital by which they bought ships and ran cottage industries. In Africa the class of professional trade was not yet well developed and organised like that of Europe. They mostly operated as middlemen of foreign coastal traders.
The quality goods differed. Due to advanced technology, Europe exchanged manufactured goods of higher quality than Africa. This also contributed to unequal exchange since Africans exchanged more valuable items like gold, ivory and hides but in their raw forms for manufactured goods like cloth, glassware and firearms from Europe.
Although systems of exchange between Europe and Africa were almost the same Europe was able to monopolize international trade due to advanced manufacturing and maritime technology.
Differences in Goods exchanged between Europe and Africa
1. Goods from Africa were higher in value than those from Europe. Africa exchanged bullions and slaves for cheap manufactured goods such as cloth and glassware from Europe.
2. Goods from Europe were manufactured items while those from Africa were raw materials. Europe exchanged goods like firearms, glassware and cloth for goods like gold, silver and palm oil from Africa.
3. Manufactured goods from Europe were superior in quality than those manufactured in Africa due to a more advanced technology of Europe. To a large extent, the manufacturing sector in Africa could not march the quality of goods such as ‘glassware and cloth from Europe.
4. The goods brought from Europe to Africa were of wider variety than those Africa produced. Europe exchanged goods such as firearms, cloth, beads, porcelain, perfumes and wine while Africa mainly exchanged minerals, slaves and few agricultural goods.
5. Europe exported only natural goods manufactured goods while in Africa, the slaves were the major item sold to European merchants.
Impact of System of Exchange that developed between Europe and Africa from the 15th C
a) Impact of the Contacts on Africa
Economic Effects
1. Technological stagnation.
Importation of European manufactured goods to Africa out-competed African local industries to lose market. Besides that, slave trade eroded Africa’s skilled craftsmen and artisans to the New World for labour.
2. Decline of inter-African trading system.
Local and regional trading patterns like the Trans-Saharan Trade that boomed before the Trans-Atlantic Trade declined as many Africans preferred dealing with European merchants by than fellow African societies and Arabs.
3. Exploitation of resources.
An enormous amount of physical and human resources were taken from Africa by European merchants through unequal exchange. That is, high valuable resources like gold, silver and ivory and labour (slaves) from Africa were taken for cheap manufactured goods such as, firearms, glassware, and cloth from Europe.
4. Introduction of new goods.
New crops such as maize, potatoes, cassava and fruits like pineapples and guavas and some manufactured goods that Africans could not produce like firearms, glassware and porcelain were imported into Africa by European traders. Some African societies adopted the crops as staple foods.
Political Effects
5. Rise and growth of states.
Some African states emerged while others grew to greatness due their role in trade. coastal and forest West African states such as Oyo, Benin and Dahomey grew in power due to Trans-Atlantic Slave which provided them wealth and firearms.
6. Downfall of some states.
Some states crumbled by attacks from more powerful states for slaves and wealth like gold and silver needed by European traders. Slave trade also robbed them of their badly needed labour force for their development.
7. Paved way for the colonization of Africa.
Mercantilism exposed Africa’s economic potentials such as minerals, fertile lands and abundant labour to European nations. After Industrial revolution, European industrial powers viewed Africa as a solution to their industrial demands such as, market and raw materials that could easily be acquired through colonisation.
8. Widened trans-continental socio-political and economic links.
The contacts (Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade) established ties between Europe and Africa. The contacts built a foundation for undermining Africa’s progress by tying the continent to imperialist control and exploitation.
Social Effects
9. Spread of diseases.
Interaction with Europe exposed Africans to diseases such as small pox, measles, syphilis and gonorrhea carried to Africa by European merchants. Diseases claimed a lot of lives.
10. Existence of state of fear and insecurity.
Slave trade devastated African societies by introducing guns which encouraged frequent inter-society wars for slave raiding and wealth looting. Societies were destabilised and people forced to wonder around in fear.
11. Depopulation.
A large number of African productive youths aged between 15 and 35 were shipped to the New World as slaves. Also famine, raids and wars of slave capture claimed lives of many. Surely, numerous societies lost generations of their fittest and able youths.
12. Culture distortion.
Contact with European merchants contributed to destruction of African culture and heritage. Some Africans adopted foreign cultural practices like dressing codes and languages. This has led to the loss of the original true African cultural identity.
13. African families were torn apart.
Countless African families were torn apart as some members were captured and exported to the Americas and the Caribbean for slavery while the lucky ones who escaped slavery in the New Worlds remained in Africa.
14. Spread of Christianity.
In contacting the European merchants, some Africans adopted Christianity. This brought a new aspect in Africa that though united people and fought bad cultural habits, created divisions based on religious lines as societies were torn apart between Christians and Non Christians.
15. Development of Kiswahili language.
Some vocabularies from European languages like Portuguese, English and French were added to Kiswahili language. For example, Portuguese words like “meza and lesu” were incorporated into Kiswahili.
16. Rise and growth of towns.
Towns developed as trading centres and ports such as Elmina and Saint Louis and Dakar. They were market places were traders met for transactions. Slaves were kept in such town-ports while waiting for shipment to the New World.
17. Occurrence of famine.
Famine was caused due to agricultural decline caused by destabilisations due to frequent slave raiding. Suddenly also slave trade led to labour shortage in farms. Besides, some societies over concentration on trade other than agriculture.
All in all, the contacts integrated Africa into capitalist economic system with Africa as the exploited and Europe as her exploiter. Africa was robbed of her precious human and physical resources and started dependence due to technological stagnation and underdevelopment.
Slaves shipped to America
Impact of the Contacts on Europe
The 15th C system of exchange (Mercantilism) by its exploitation of other continents through unequal exchange resulted into the development of European countries by the following ways;
1. Accumulation of wealth.
European powers amassed a lot of wealth particularly bullions by exploiting other continents, mainly Africa and the Americas through unequal exchange, plundering and slavery. The capital acquired was invested in their sectors like industry.
2. Development of science and technology.
Most notably was Marine technology which was the backbone of mercantilism. With marine technology was industrial technology that ultimately led to Industrial Revolution due to increased invention to meet the increasing domestic and overseas market demands.
3. Development of towns and ports.
City ports like Liverpool, Marseilles and Amsterdam developed as commercial centres and landing sites that handled commodities carried to and from overseas. Other towns like Yorkshire and Lancashire developed as manufacturing centres.
4. Expansion of class differentiations.
Expansion of overseas trade led to the rise and expansion of a rich commercial class that transformed Europe to capitalism. This class amassed a lot of wealth that they used to dominate the economic affairs of their countries and exploit the poor classes of workers and peasants.
5. Development of monetary economy.
Trade led to the monetization of the European economy. At first the bullions were applied as standards of measure hence nations competed for their accumulation but later coinage and paper money was adopted as trade volumes expanded.
6. Development of financial institutions.
Banks like Barclays formed in 1756 and insurance houses were born of the wealth accumulated by Europeans from trade and as well they boosted trade by providing security to merchants’ wealth and capital in forms of credits.
7. Provision of cheap labour.
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade is known for its greatest human trafficking. Through it millions of African slaves were exported from Africa to the New Worlds to provide cheap labour in the European capitalist established mines and plantations.
8. Colonial expansion.
Due to overseas trade European states acquired colonies in the New Worlds for example; Britain possessed the 13 North American colonies, Jamaica and Trinidad; Portugal had Brazil; Spain had Mexico etc. colonies were exploited as sources of bullions, raw materials, and markets.
9. Opened and strengthened trans-continental links.
From the 15th C European external trade. Mercantilism established ties between Europe and other continents like Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Since then the ties provide Europe with wider trading and exploitation zones.
While trade particularly foreign trade dwarfed African socio-political and economic progress, it elevated that of Western Europe with nations like Britain, France, Holland and Spain that emerged into socio-political and economic powerful states due to massive wealth accumulated from trade through dishonest means of plundering, slave trade, robbery and piracy.
Barclays Bank in London
General Impacts of Exchange on Africa and Europe
Trade, whether local or regional or international had a number of effects on African and European societies before or after the 15th C. The effects were either positive or negative.
Positive impacts (significance/contributions to development)
1. Rise and growth of states.
States in Western Europe like England, France and Holland acquired enormous wealth from external trade to become more powerful. While in Africa coastal and forest West Africa states like Oyo, Benin, Dahomey and Asante and East African states Buganda and Karagwe grew in power by acquiring wealth and firearms from trade.
2. Rise and growth of towns.
Towns and cities developed as ports, trading and manufacturing centres. City ports like Liverpool, Amsterdam and Lisbon in Europe while Dakar and Elmina (West Africa), Zanzibar, Bagamoyo and Mombasa (East Africa); Taghaza, Timbuktu, Sijlimasa, Gao and Jenne (West Africa) and; Fez and Tunis (North Africa). They were mainly market centres and ports were traders met for transactions.
3. Improvement of productive forces and technology.
The quest to produce surplus for exchange stimulated man’s prcductive skills and industry. All that improved sectors like agriculture, mining and industry to avail enough for consumption and surplus for exchange.
4. Development of transport systems.
In Europe, marine transport was developed along other transport systems. In Africa where Long Distance Trading systems such as Trans-Saharan and the East African Long Distance trade emerged, caravan routes developed through which Animal such as camels and horses and human transport was used.
5. Introduction of new goods.
Goods that societies could not produce on their own were availed by trade. Africa acquired items like firearms from the Middle East and Europe. Likewise foreign traders collected goods like gold and silver from Africa.
6. Accumulation of wealth.
European and African societies acquired wealth that consolidated them economically, politically and socially. The wealth acquired was invested in administration and economic sectors like agriculture, industry and transport.
7. Established links between societies.
Trade contacts between societies linked and created friendliness among them through which they shared knowledge and skills and influenced each other to adopt new norms and civilization. The closeness of mainly coastal peoples of East and North Africa to Middle East is traced from early trading contacts from the 7th C.
8. Intermarriages.
The intermarriages between foreign traders and Africans gave birth to half-casts. In East Africa were the Swahili people, born of Arabs and Africans, in West Africa were called Mullatoes being born of either Europeans or Arabs with Africans. In Congo and Mozambique, of Portuguese and African and were called Pombeiros.
9. Spread of new religions.
Islam was spread in Africa through the Trans-Saharan trade and the East and Central F African Long Distance Trade by the Arab Muslim traders and Christianity through the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Though these religions united people, they led to divisions that tore societies into apart of Muslims, Christians and Traditionalists.
10. Birth of Kiswahili language.
Kiswahili was an outcome of African contact with the outsiders mainly through trade. It began as mixture of Arabic and Bantu dialects to address language barrier problem between African and Arab traders. Contact with Europeans from 15th C also added to it some vocabularies like “meza” from Portuguese.
Negative Impacts
The negative impacts were mainly on Africa;
1. Slave trade.
Contact with outside world led to human trafficking from Africa to the foreign lands mostly to the Americas and Caribbean - slaves were the major item taken from Africa by European merchants in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Slave trade led to depopulation, fear and insecurity, famine and more so tore families apart.
2. Creation of classes.
Trading contacts with the outside world led to creation of classes based on race and religion. In regions where trade with the Arabs flourished classes of Arabs and Muslim converts and others were created. Likewise where Trans-Atlantic Slave trade flourished classes were created between Christian converts and others like Muslims and Traditionalists. Besides also was the creation of classes of African middlemen.
3. Decline of other economic activities.
Trading contact with outside world undermined other economic activities, agriculture and industry in particular. More concentration by rulers and population was directed to trade with coastal traders. Moreover, slave trade drained massive labour from Africa that would be important for development of other sectors of production.
4. Technological stagnation.
5. Exploitation of resources.
6. Downfall of some states.
7. Spread of diseases.
8. Culture distortion.
9. Paved way for the future colonization of Africa.
African Slaves working in the New World (America)
POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN AFRICA AND EUROPE IN (BY) THE 15TH C
The concept of “political systems” is used to describe an evolution of organised government structures maintained by administration, coercive instruments and judiciary.
By the 15th C, distinguished political organisations had developed in Africa and Europe, however with variations in terms of development and efficiency. The level of development of the political systems was determined by the level of productive forces and modes of production developed by the concerned political systems - beginning with smallest unit of the social organisation which is the family to the complex unit which is the state.
Political System in Africa in (by) the 15th C
In the 15th C, Africa had developed three distinct political systems, namely; clan, age- set and state organisations;
Clan Organisations
These were common in communal and in most cases agricultural societies. For this form of organisation, several families with close blood relationship formed a clan and the clan chose its leader - the Clan-head. The Clan-head held sociopolitical powers, distributed land to clan members and provided guidance in production. The communal living meant that major means of production like land and products of labour were shared among clan members.
Age-set Organisation
In this system, division of duties was based on age and sex. People of same age group and sex were initiated together, taught society’s culture and their responsibilities and bore a distinctive regimental (group) name to perform specific duties together. The system was as well common in communal societies, more especially in pastoral societies like the Maasai. Some agricultural societies like the Kikuyu and Nyakyusa also operated they system. Society or age group headship was determined by age, wisdom and good character.
Note; Clan and Age system were much democratic; decision making was made by the whole community and age groups themselves made their own day to day decisions. Discipline and obedience was highly observed. Trouble makers were punished by the community.
State Organisation
Two forms of state organisation evolved in Africa; the centralised and decentralised states. Centralised states were large collections of clans to be controlled by a centralised authority. They were ruled by kings who held state power and controlled the major means of production like land. Such societies included Ghana and Mali (West Africa) and Buganda and Karagwe (East African). The decentralised states were the segmented states with no centralised authority and instead were controlled by councils of elders or clan heads or chiefs.
Mansa Musa. One of the greatest emperors of the Malian Empire. He came to power in 1307, he was perhaps the wealthiest ruler of his day, he is credited with the Golden Age of Mali.
Summary of Level of Political Development in Africa in (by) the 15th C
1. Variations of political systems.
African societies were not at the same level of political development. While some were clan organisations like the Ntemiship in present day Tanzania, others societies had transformed to States like Buganda an Karagwe.
2. Communal system was dominant in a large part of Africa due to low development of productive force. Few societies that had iron technology had reached the feudal stage. The ruling classes controlled land which they distributed to their subjects to produce them surplus. Nevertheless, whether feudal or what, to a large extent African societies carried out their activities collectively in which ideally all able- bodied adults participated.
3. States formation developed in societies with advanced productive forces. The overriding force for state formation was iron technology. The technology boosted agriculture, industry, trade and security that enabled some societies like Mali develop into prominent states.
4. Parliamentary system.
Some states had organised parliaments that assisted rulers in administration. Parliaments were made of ministers, chiefs and elders. The remarkable states here are Buganda with the Lukiiko and Oyo with the Oyo Messi. Clan and Age-set organisations had councils of elders or general public assemblies to make and pass decisions.
5. Development of social differentiation.
Communal societies had simple classes determined by division of labour and roles people played like leaders, medicine-men and diviners. While as in communal societies all were workers, in feudal societies the rulers and landlords were not directly involved in production but exploited the serfs who had to produce surplus for them.
6. Role of the rulers.
Rulers served the purposes of organising production, control means of production like land, uniting the people, ensure protection of society and served as chief judges and military commanders.
7. The development of productive forces allowed trade to develop among African societies.
Local trade existed between societies such as agriculture and pastoral societies. Societies exchanged goods like cattle, food cloth and iron tools. Also regional and inter-continental trade; in West Africa was the Trans-Saharan with states like Ghana, Mali and Songhai; in East Africa was the Long Distance with states like Buganda and Nyamwezi. These trading systems contacted Africa with foreigners; Arab, Indian and European traders.
8. Religion was central part of state operation.
Rulers were political but also religious heads. It was asserted that through them God communicated to his people through the spirits. They presided over religious ceremonies like prayers and offering of sacrifices. Notable instances are Buganda and Ghana where kings were seen representatives of God to their people
Buganda Kingdom
Political System in Europe in (by) the 15th C
Origin of state development in Europe
The Middle Ages (Medieval Period) was the formative period in the history of modem European states. The Middle Age (5th to 15th C) is the period starting from the demise of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 to the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery.
Within the period, Kings in Europe consolidated their power and set up centralised states between the 9th and 14th Centuries, that was during the High Middle Ages. By the 15th C, the continent had evolved sophisticated centralised political systems ruled by absolute monarchs. Prominent states included England, France, Austria, Spain, Holland, Russia and Portugal. During the period, political systems in Europe operated under the church (papacy). This was the period known as Christendom. In the period, the pope had great powers vested in him as religious and political sovereign ruler of nations in Europe. Rulers of different nations worked under him.
Europe was under feudal political power. The Feudal Mode of Production developed in Europe after the demise of the Roman Empire in the 5th C. It thus developed from the womb of the Slave Mode of Production of the Roman Empire. It started by the development of small decentralised political units called Manors headed by Rich landlords who at times were military leaders. The lords of the manors were under stronger lords who were the monarchs whose work was to reign, ensure smooth running of the government and defend his people.
Political systems in Europe were supported by strong standing armies. The armies did not only defend states’ interests domestically but also performed systematic expansionism within and outside Europe. It was due to that, Western Europe acquired colonies in the New World.
London, England
Factors for the Rise of Centralised States in Europe
State formation and development in Europe is accredited to the following circumstantial factors;
1. The role of Renaissance.
This was the rebirth of knowledge and the beginning of the Age of Discovery from me 14th C. It was ignited with the rediscovery of classical Greek, Roman and Arabic knowledge and had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. It challenged traditional doctrines in politics, science and theology (religion). People started questioning the divine powers of rulers and religious leaders and demanded constitutional rule.
2. The Reformation.
The Protestant Reformation that started in German by Martin Luther against the practices of Catholic Church spread through Europe and gained many followers even among princes and kings seeking stronger states by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Many broke away from the Catholic Church like King Henry VIII of England who set up the Anglican Church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars by ambitious monarchs who become more centralised and powerful.
3. Crusades.
These were military invasions, first taken in 1095 by the papacy (Pope Urban II) and western European Christians into non-Christian lands. The crusades brought forced conversion and assimilation of numerous peoples into Christianity and European culture. During the wars the invaded lands like the Persian Empire and Baltic regions were robbed of their wealth.
4. Role of religion.
In the beginning Catholicism was dominant influential in the rise of early strong states like Carolingian Empire under King Charlemagne and other states like France and Austria that emerged after the disintegration of the empire. After the Reformation, protestant churches such in England and Prussia solidified unity for strong states.
5. Rise of strong leaders.
From the Middle Ages powerful leaders surfaced to form strong states in Europe. Among them was Charlemagne who carried out expansion program in 774 that unified a large portion of central Europe to form the Carolingian Empire. In England, King Henry VIII destroyed the powers of the landlords, nobles and the church by seizing their land and united the English people to create to a strongly centralised state in England.
6. Population rise.
In the Middle Ages, the population of Europe increased greatly. The estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347 as technology and agriculture improved. Population expansions called for the need to form laws that would control relations among people, so leaders and states rose by the way.
7. Development in science and technology.
From the 12th and 13th Centuries, Europe produced significant technology and innovations. Apart from iron technology, other major technological advance included the invention of the Windmill. Technology boosted the whole economy as agriculture, industry, transport, trade and military were all improved.
8. The role trade.
By the mid 8th C, trade between Europe and the Arabs availed Europe with wealth in forms of silks, spices, and precious metals. From the 15th C mercantilism enabled states like Spain, England and France to raise to prominence by amassing great wealth in forms of bullions, raw materials, slaves and capital which they invested in other sectors like industry, agriculture and infrastructure.
9. Role of strong armies and conquest.
The growing dominance of the military in the Middle Ages made state formation possible. The military technology that improved military effectiveness included the introduction closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, and gunpowder. Successful warlords became rulers and conquered weak tribes.
The High Middle Ages was the most renowned period in the history of the modern Western Europe. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions.
By the 15th century, Feudalism as a mode of production was a major socio-political and economic system Europe and Africa had in common.
Paris, France
FEUDALISM IN EUROPE
Feudalism is a Mode of Production based on landownership. In a feudal system, land is the major means of production. Land was owned by a few, the landlords who rent it to the landless majority, the peasants or tenant (serfs). Besides owning land, landlords partially owned the serfs whom they exploited by payment of rent.
The emergence of feudalism in Europe is traced from the 5th Century A.D. after the fall of the Roman Empire. The local rulers (warlords) who fought the empire declared their independencies (manors) and distributed land to their armies in exchange for military services. They also distributed it to the church, individual rich slave masters (Latifundia) and loyal subjects. The person receiving land was called a vassal who also distributed it to landless people who now became peasants or serfs. Serfs (tenants) worked on the land in return for rent to the landlords.
Features of European Feudalism
1. Land was the major form of property.
Land being the major means of production, agriculture was the major economic activity. The other means of production like industry were also crucial but second to land in importance.
2. Property especially land was owned by a few landlords who rented it the majority landless serfs and peasants. The land owning classes were the aristocrats, the church and landlords. The serfs worked on the landlords’ land on condition that they paid rent to the landlords.
3. Social stratification.
Society was divided into classes; at the top were the nobility classes of the aristocrats; second were the clergy, the knights and the landlords. At the bottom were vast majority peasants and serfs who did not own property. This class was also divided into the Freemen Tenants (peasants) who enjoyed some freedom as they paid rent in produce and could leave the land when they wished and serfs who could not lawfully leave the manor or marry without the consent of the landlord.
4. The church was a powerful feudal institution owning vast estates and accommodating tenants and serfs. Besides controlling religious and moral affairs of society, the church participated in political roles to the state. Religion was imperative in strengthening loyalty to the state.
5. State and state apparatuses.
Feudalism existed under centralized monarchies. State power was in hands of monarchs supported with armies. The monarch was the major landlord and with him/her were nobility, clergy and landlords enjoying state power and wealth.
6. Restrictive laws.
In Europe feudalism operated under specific formulated laws which strengthened the loyalty of the serfs to the landlords to enhance exploitation. The laws for example bounded serfs on the land where they could neither leave nor marry without the consent of the landlords. Such laws were known as feudal justice laws.
7. Excessive exploitation of the serf and peasants.
Serfs paid high and many feudal dues in forms of rent and taxes to the landlords, the church and the state. All the three forms of rent were in place labour rent, rent in kind and money rent. In France for example, the several taxes they were obliged to pay included income tax, land tax, poll tax and salt tax. In addition he paid a tithe of the produce of his land to the church. As if all that was not enough, he was often liable to forced labour on the roads or public buildings.
Rent payment; On using their landlords’ lands serfs had to pay rent to the landlord. Rent payment was the major possible form of extracting surplus from the serfs by landlord. The three forms of rent were; Labour Rent in which peasants worked part of the week, providing labour for the landlords and the rest of the days on his holding; Rent in kind by which the peasant shared portion of his products with his landlords and; Rent in cash, peasants paid in form of money — the peasant had to sell his products in order to pay rent.
8. Division of land.
Land in the manors was divided into different complete portion for different purposes. The major divisions were; the open free lands for cultivation common meadow land for hay production, common pasture lands for grazing of cattle, common woodlands for firewood and common wastelands which were fallowed.
Factors for the Rise of Feudalism in Europe
1. The disintegration of the Roman Empire in the 15th C.
When the empire dissolved, the tribes that fought it declared their independencies, the slaves who worked with the Roman Empire were freed and land was distributed to rich slave masters, soldiers and loyal subjects. Those who received land became landlords and the freed slaves became serfs/tenants.
2. End of slavery.
When slavery came to an end after the dissolution of the Roman Empire, the slave masters found new method to make the slaves remain under servitude by renting them land so as to tie the slave on the land to work for them. So the free slaves became serfs.
3. The need for security.
A situation of anarchy of attacks like of Hungarians upon Italians, and French conditioned people to seek for protection from the powerful warlords/rulers.
Protection was granted to them in return for their labour, military services or giving part of their produce to the rulers who became their landlords.
4. Population expansion.
In the Middle Ages population in Europe rapidly expanded mainly due to increased security and agriculture production. Its expansion left many people landless. The few who possessed land entered into relations with the landless to work on their land in return for rent payment.
5. Development of productive forces.
Developments in technology particularly metal works, led to the rise of classes. Also the making of efficient tools enabled those with skills to subdue others and open more land for agriculture hence required more labour. The subdued people were made serfs to work for the landowning classes.
6. Unequal distribution of labour products and properties.
The development of classes, led to inequalities. Due to that, individuals and societies that possessed more resources like iron and big populations, transformed much quickly to Feudalism. They conquered weaker societies and turned the conquered peoples to serfs.
7. Power struggle.
The manorial system that ensued the collapse of the Roman Empire, suffered from power struggles among the warlords that fought the empire. The struggles were the wars of conquest to increase land and people for control. The conquerors became the landlord and the conquered were turned to serfs.
How Feudalism Operated in Europe
The estates of feudal lords were called manors occupied by dependants, the tenants serfs, the semi-independent dependants were the peasants. The manors were self-reliant: they produced everything people needed, starting with foods, clothing, leather goods and provided their own security. The manor varied in size according to the wealth of its lord. Every Noble had at least his own manor, even the king depended on his many manors. The different manors under different lords all together were under one king.
Each manor was partitioned into three parts according to its use. The first portion was for landlord’s use only; the second for the serfs/peasant to meet their needs, and the third was the common land which included wood, meadow, pasture and wasteland which according to the custom remained at the disposal of both serfs/peasants and the landlords.
Comparisons of the African and European Feudal Systems in the 15th C
Similarities
1. Land was the major factor of production and on it agriculture was the major productive activity. The land ownership was by the monarchy, the few rich landlords and the clergy who rented it to the majority landless serfs.
2. Stratification of society.
Classes based on land ownership system. The land owning classes included the ruling classes of monarchs, nobles, clergy and rich landlords while the landless exploited classes of were serfs who occupied the bottom position in society.
3. Feudalism was exploitative.
Land owning classes like the monarchs, nobles and landlords exploited the serfs and peasants working on their land through payment of rent so as to produce surplus for them. In Europe, on top of the rents, the serfs were subjected to payment of taxes, forceful free labour, and robbery.
4. Development in productive skills.
There was considerable development of technology heavily boosted by iron works in the feudal states of Europe and Africa. In both continents agriculture developed and cottage and handcraft industries existed, producing goods for domestic use and for exchange.
5. Existence of centralised political states.
In both Africa and Europe feudal systems developed in centralised political systems. Examples included the Carolingian Empire. England, Spain and Portugal that had organised monarchical systems since the 8th C. In Africa they included Zimbabwe, Egypt. Ethiopia, Buganda, Meroe, Ghana, Mali and Songhai
6. The tendency of conquest.
Feudal states in Europe and Africa had a tendency of invading weak societies for land, wealth and labour. In the 15th C European feudal states like Spain and England expanding within Europe and abroad in the New World. In Africa strong feudal states like Ghana and Mali conquered weak neighbours.
7. Co-existence of modes of production.
In both Europe and Africa, the feudal modes did not operate independently in the 15th C. While in Europe, capitalism had started emerging within the feudal system, in Africa communalism was still dominant even within feudal societies.
Differences
1. In Africa, feudalism evolved from Communal Mode of Production while in Europe from the Slave Mode of Production. In Africa the system arose as class differentiations developed in the communal system while in Europe it emerged from the classes of slave masters and slaves formed during the time of the Roman Empire that practiced Slave Mode of Production
2. Feudalism in Africa was at its early stage of development in most societies in the 15th C. It was still on transition from communalism. Elements of communalism like communal labour were still present in the feudal system of African societies. In Europe however, it had reached the last stage of maturity and transforming to capitalism.
3. In feudal Europe, land was divided in complete portions for different purpose such as the common meadow land for producing hay; common pasture land for cattle grazing; common woodlands for firewood; open fields for cultivation; and common wastelands. In Africa, however this was not the case - land was not divided in complete portions.
4. In Europe, all the three forms of rent; labour rent, rent in kind and rent in cash were in place. In the 15th C money rent was becoming more widely used in Europe due to expansion of commodity production and trade. In Africa only labour rent and rent in kind were applied.
5. In Europe, feudalism operated through formalised laws; the Feudal Justice laws that tied serfs on land for exploitation by the landlords. In Africa however, there were no such laws and thus the system was less exploitative and the serfs enjoyed some freedoms. For example they could freely marry as they did not need the permission of the landlord like it was in Europe.
6. Class formation was broader than in Africa. Feudalism in Europe operated in three broad classes of landlords who were the aristocrats, clergy and rich landlords, peasants who owned small plots of land and serfs who were landless, while in Africa mainly two classes of landlords who in most cases were rulers and tenants the subjects were into existence.
7. In the feudal Europe, the level of science and technology was more advanced than in Africa. Europe had developed high maritime technology to make high sea going vessels and marine compass, firearms, better farming tools like ploughs and more efficient cottage industries that supported foreign trade. Africa had not reached such technological levels like efficient marine technology and farming tools.
8. European strong feudal states carried out expansionism within Europe and abroad to acquire overseas colonies. The colonisation of the New World by European states like Spain, Portugal, England and France is the case highlighted. Nevertheless, with Africa expansionism was only within against the weaker neighbouring societies.
Comparisons of the African and European Political Systems in the 15th C
Similarities
1. In both Africa and Europe the political systems were still under feudalism.
Their political systems defended the exploitation of peasants and serfs by the ruling classes and rich landlords who controlled property, especially land and political power.
2. Presence of centralised states.
In the 15th C, Africa and Europe had developed centralised states ruled by Monarchs. They had well organised administrative systems with judiciary and parliamentary systems like in Buganda, the Lukiiko and the Oyo Messi in Oyo Empire and councils of ministers.
3. Religion was a central part of political systems.
It was a force of cohesion between rulers and their subjects. In Europe, there were state churches like Catholic Church for states like France and Austria and Anglican Church for England. The church was involved in state governance and kings were approved by the pope. In Africa there were communities’ religions and kings claimed divine powers just like in Europe. In states like Ghana, Buganda and Benin, kings were also religious heads who claimed to be in direct communication with God through the spirits.
4. Hereditary succession.
There were royal families from which rulers came. Power was always transferred from father to son or daughter or to immediate relative like a brother in case the deceased monarch was childless. Also classes in society were always hereditary; children of landlords were future landlord and same to peasants or serfs.
5. Tendency of expansionism.
Strong states in Africa and Europe upheld policies of conquest of weaker communities for land, wealth and labour. For example the state of Kangaba expanded to form Mali by annexing her weaker neighbours. European states like England and Spain did not only expand internally but also abroad like in the New World.
6. In Europe and Africa rulers shared same obligations.
Besides being heads of states, they also served as chief judges and military commanders. They as well controlled means of production, particularly land and organised production and ensured protection.
7. In both, states were directly involved in trade within and outside their states. In the Trans-Saharan Trade for instance, West African states like Ghana, Songhai and Bornu traded with North Africa, Arab and European merchants. In east Africa states like Buganda, Karagwe and Nyamwezi were in contact with coastal Arab, Indian, Swahili and European traders.
8. Co-existence of modes of production.
In both Europe and Africa, the feudal modes did not operate independently in the 15th C. While in Europe, capitalism had started emerging within the feudal system in Africa communalism was still dominant even within feudal societies.
King Taharqa, Nubia
Differences
1. In the 15th C, the entire Europe was under centralised states like “Spain, England, Holland and France headed by absolute monarchies. Africa had a diversity of political systems. While there were few developed strong centralised states like Bunyoro, Luba, and Mali, other societies were still under clan and Age-set organisations.
2. In the 15th C, Europe had developed nation states such as Spain, France, England and Holland ruled by despotic monarchies claiming to have “divine powers.” With the nation states, ideas of nationalism became stronger to be glorified as a sign of patriotism to ones nation. In Africa nation states never emerged until colonisation by Europeans in the late 19th C. The states that were in place were only tribal empires.
3. In the 15th C, feudalism in states of Western Europe had reached the mature stage and was in transition to capitalism. In Africa, however many states had just developed the feudal systems. While some societies were just on transition from communalism to feudalism, others were still fully communal. In Europe therefore, political systems were more mature.
4. Military advancement. By the 15th C well trained, equipped with firearms and motivated national armies were present throughout Western Europe. Due to military superiority, European nations conquered and plundered other nations within Europe and abroad for wealth accumulation. African states could not make firearms of their own and could not expand beyond Africa.
5. In Europe, the ruling class structure was broader comprising of the monarchs, aristocracy, Dukes, clergy, Barons and the Knights in that order. Below them were the landlords, peasants and finally serfs. In Africa the ruling structure was very narrow, with the monarch, supportive chiefs/council ministers/elders and common people at the bottom.
6. In Africa most monarchs had both political as well as religious powers. They were seen as representatives of God on earth or religious leaders like in Buganda and Ghana and presided over religious ceremonies while as in Europe, though monarchs worked in hand with churches they were not religious leaders.
7. European states were more expansionists than African states. While as European states expanded both within Europe by conquered their weak neighbours and abroad when they conquered the New World, African states expansionist tendencies were only confined to Africa by only annexing their weak neighbouring states.
English Army
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AFRICA AND EUROPE IN (BY) THE 15TH C
Science is the organised knowledge and skills based on facts that can be proved through experiments and observation. It is a product of research and experiment and thus deals with analysing facts and making conclusions about them.
Technology is the scientific knowledge used practically or is simply the application of scientific knowledge in handling tasks or solving a problem. In simple terms technology is applied science. In that case science and technology are inseparable. They are a product of man’s struggle to master his environment and solve problems for his wellbeing.
In (by) the 15th C, Africa and Europe had reached a recognisable level in the fields of science and technology as analysed below;
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